Master of Science / Department of Clinical Sciences / Michael D. Apley / One hundred ninety four steers, bulls, and heifers weighing 182-318 kg were purchased at an Arkansas sale barn and shipped 12 hours to a northern Kansas feedlot. There was no previous history of treatment and the cattle had been delivered to the sale barn within the 24 hour period prior to the sale. The objectives of the study were to evaluate (1) bacterial pathogen isolates in different locations in the respiratory tract, (2) pathogen load in clinically ill and clinically normal calves, and (3) compare histological damage that may be a result of clinical disease. Fifteen calves were identified with signs of acute bovine respiratory disease (BRD) based on clinical score and a minimum rectal temperature of 40° C. An additional 5 calves with no clinical signs and rectal temperatures < 40° C were selected as controls. Cattle were humanely euthanized following recording of antemortem clinical observations. At postmortem, samples for microbiologic and histologic (hematoxylin and eosin stain) analysis were collected from grossly normal and/or consolidated tissue in each lung lobe. Samples were also collected from the tonsils and trachea. Quantification of the BRD pathogens per gram were determined for each positive site and then converted to total counts for each animal. Total colony forming units (CFU) of pathogens in the entire lung for cattle with identified pathogens ranged from 2x10[superscript]7 – 2x10[superscript]8 CFU for Pasturella multocida and 9x10[superscript]6 – 9x10[superscript]8 CFU for Mannheimmia haemolytica. Total visual estimated percent consolidation ranged from 0.0% to 45.0% of the total lung. Isolated pathogens from the upper and lower respiratory tract were compared and showed to have no significant agreement. Histology scores of 0-4 were assigned to the tissue samples and compared to the quantified BRD pathogens to test a possible association between the pathologic process and the total agents in that tissue sample. A significant difference in bacterial counts between histology scores of zero or 1 and a histology score of 4 was observed.

Master of Science / Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Larry C. Hollis / Mark F. Spire / Two studies were undertaken to evaluate the use of Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) to determine arterial oxygen saturation (StO[subscript]2) in cattle with naturally-occurring Undifferentiated Bovine Respiratory Disease (UBRD) and experimentally-induced UBRD utilizing Mannheimia haemolytica. The first study was a natural infection model utilizing 679 beef heifers weighing approximately 227 kg (500 pounds) originating from a southeastern U.S. salebarn. Heifers were evaluated for UBRD upon feedlot arrival, at revaccination, at day 35 on feed, at re-implant time, and two weeks prior to shipment for slaughter. Animals deemed to have UBRD were treated for UBRD and data was collected for 5 days following treatment, while a comparable healthy cohort was also evaluated at the time of treatment. There was a trend for NIRS to be able to predict the incidence of subsequent UBRD when cattle were evaluated on arrival (p=0.0552). However, the ability to detect UBRD in clinically ill cattle was not significantly different (p>0.1690) when compared to healthy cohorts in this model. When carcass characteristics were evaluated at each time point, NIRS StO[subscript]2 values were able to differentiate between yield grades of animals with UBRD and healthy cohorts when evaluated at revaccination, day 35, re-implant, and pre-shipping (p<0.0199). NIRS tended to be able to differentiate yield grades at initial processing (p=0.0513). StO[subscript]2 was not a predictor of quality grade at any time point (p>0.1023), nor was there any correlation between lung lesions at slaughter and StO[subscript]2 (p>0.2292). The second study involved 12 head of 181 kg (400 pound) heifers which were subjected to an experimental challenge model of Mannheimia haemolytica. Animals were evaluated daily and StO[subscript]2 readings recorded 12 hours pre-inoculation, at inoculation, 6, 12 and 24 hours post inoculation and daily for the next 12 days. While NIRS could not definitively differentiate healthy cohort cattle from challenge cattle (p>0.0713), there were trends toward challenge cattle having lower StO[subscript]2 values than healthy controls. The authors conclude that while these studies did not provide conclusive evidence of the ability of NIRS to detect UBRD, further studies with a machine that is specifically calibrated and designed for use with cattle should be performed.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Animal Science and Industry / Chris Reinhardt / Dan Thomson / Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex (BRDC) is the most common and costly disease in feedlot cattle in North America. Annual economic losses are estimated to be US$1 billion due to mortality, reduced performance, and treatment costs. The disease is a multifactorial syndrome caused by a combination of environmental factors, management practices, animal susceptibility, and viral and bacterial pathogens. The objectives of this dissertation were to evaluate two injectable antimicrobials for the treatment and control of BRDC in feedlot cattle, investigation of factors associated with BRDC mortality and morbidity, and to develop control charts based on statistical process control (SPC) principles to monitor cattle mortality rates. Two multi-site prospective studies were conducted to evaluate the comparative efficacy of the administration of gamithromycin and tulathromycin for the treatment and control of BRDC. A total of 2,529 animals were enrolled at two commercial feedlot locations to evaluate the efficacy of the antimicrobials to control BRDC. Morbidity due to BRDC was higher (P = 0.03) among calves receiving gamithromycin compared with those receiving tulathromycin; however, treatments were considered bioequivalent (P < 0.05) for BRDC mortality, case fatality rate and re-treatment rate. Final BW, ADG, DMI and F:G, were similar (P<0.05) between the groups of calves receiving gamithromycin and tulathromycin. For the evaluation of treatment efficacy, a total of 1,049 calves were enrolled in the study. Re-treatment rate was higher among animals treated with gamithromycin compared with those treated with tulathromycin. Treatments were bioequivalent (P < 0.05) for case fatality rate, final BW, and ADG. To evaluate factors associated with BRDC, a retrospective study was conducted to analyze BRDC mortality and morbidity associated with initial body weight, rectal temperature, and castration and dehorning (tipping) at processing. Calves with lighter weights and fever at processing were at greater risk of mortality and morbidity due to BRDC. Also, bulls castrated at processing were at higher risk of developing BRDC. Finally, we developed control charts based on SPC principles to monitor and identify “normal” and special cases of variation of mortality rate. In feedlot cattle, monitoring lots of cattle through SPC principles can be used as a powerful tool for continuous improvement.

Master of Science / Department of Clinical Sciences / Daniel U. Thomson / Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) continues to be one of the largest animal health concerns in the cattle industry. BRD is a multifaceted group of pathogens, both viral and bacterial, that take advantage of an immune compromised calf to cause disease. This study took aim at comparing metaphylactic treatments for BRD in both the feedlot and pasture setting. In the feedlot study, heifers (n=579, 403.7 ± 27.4 lbs) from Southwest Texas were identified as being high risk for BRD and shipped to the Clayton Livestock Research Center in Clayton, NM. Cattle were randomly allocated within truck load lots into 18 to 20 head treatment pens (30 pens; 3 treatments; 10 reps). Cattle were given one of three metaphylactic treatments based on the randomly assigned treatment for their pen within a replicate. The three antibiotic treatments administered at initial processing were: 1) Tulathromycin (2.5 mg/kg), 2) Tilmicosin (13.3 mg/kg), and 3) Gamithromycin (6.0 mg/kg). Cattle were fed a typical commercial starter diet for the first 56-60 d with a step-up ration change at day 28. At the end of the feeding period, pens were weighed and body weights recorded. Dry Matter Intake, morbidity, and mortality were recorded by CLRC personnel daily. Cattle administered tulathromycin had higher daily gains than cattle administered gamithromycin by 0.29 lbs/d (P<.01) and tended (P=0.09) have higher daily gains than cattle that received tilmicosin by 0.18 lbs/d. Tulathromycin treated cattle tended (P = 0.12) to have improved feed efficiency compared to gamithromycin treated cattle. Cattle that received tulathromycin (5.2%) had lower morbidity rates (P < .02) than tilmicosin (14.6%) and gamithromycin (12.79%) treated cattle. There were no treatment differences in dry matter intake or mortality in cattle. For the wheat pasture study, heifers (n=120, 393.2 ± 28.6 lbs) from the same origin and risk were shipped to the CLRC and processed before being trailed to a nearby wheat pasture. Cattle were randomly assigned into three treatment groups (3 treatments, 40 reps), and were given one of three metaphylactic treatments. The three antibiotic treatments administered at initial processing were: 1) Tulathromycin (2.5 mg/kg), 2) Tilmicosin (13.3 mg/kg), and 3) Gamithromycin (6.0 mg/kg). Cattle were allowed to graze on wheat for 54 days with free-choice Hi-Pro mineral mixed with Lasalocid, an ionophore. After 54 days on wheat pasture, the cattle were trailed back to the CLRC facilities and final individual weights were recorded. Morbidity and mortality were recorded daily by CLRC personnel. No differences were identified for ADG (P=0.98), morbidity (P=0.46) or mortality (P=0.36) among the three treatment groups.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Animal Sciences and Industry / J. S. Drouillard / Four experiments were conducted to evaluate the potential for accelerating adaption to high-concentrate diets and improving the health of high-risk calves, by administering an oral dose of Megasphaera elsdenii. Lactipro, a probiotic containing a live culture of Megasphaera elsdenii (10[superscript]9 CFU/mL), was orally dosed to cattle (100 mL) at initial processing. In experiment 1, heifers were adapted to a high-concentrate diet in 21 d without Lactipro or dosed with Lactipro and adapted in 16 d, 11 d, 6 d, or fed the high-concentrate diet d 1. Accelerating adaptation decreased DMI (P = 0.09), ADG, and efficiency (P < 0.05) during the first 30 d compared to cattle adapted over 21 d. Over 129 d, DMI and ADG were not different (P ≥ 0.12), but efficiency tended (P = 0.08) to be better for cattle adapted over 21 d. Liver abscesses and carcass traits were not different between treatments, with the exceptions of LM area (quadratic, P < 0.01) and marbling (linear, P = 0.07), which tended to increase with accelerated adaptation protocols. In experiment 2, cattle dosed with Lactipro and placed directly onto the finishing diet required less roughage (P < 0.01), tended to have lower DMI (P = 0.07), better quality grade (P ≤ 0.07), and similar ADG and efficiency (P ≥ 0.14) compared to cattle adapted over 18 d without Lactipro. Over the first 24 d DMI, DM fecal output, and apparent total tract NDF digestibility were greater (P < 0.01) for cattle adapted over 18 d. In Experiment 3, dosing calves, of Mexican origin, with Lactipro did not affect performance (P ≥ 0.16). Second antibiotic therapies for undifferentiated bovine respiratory disease (UBRD) tended (P = 0.06) to be lower in calves dosed Lactipro. In Experiment 4, dosing calves from Texas with Lactipro increased DMI, ADG, and efficiency (P ≤ 0.05). The incidence of 1st and 2nd antibiotic therapies for UBRD (P < 0.01) and medical cost were decreased for calves dosed Lactipro (P < 0.05). Dosing cattle with Lactipro allows for accelerated adaption to high-concentrate diets, decreases reliance on roughages, and improves health during the receiving period.

Master of Science / Department of Clinical Sciences / Daniel U. Thomson / Bovine respiratory disease (BRDC) is a multifaceted disease that causes considerable economic loss in both the beef and dairy industry. However, because there may be lingering effects of BRDC in the dairy industry, the full economic costs of the disease may not be realized. These lingering effects may include an increased departure from the herd, decreased milk production, and decreased reproductive performance. All of these outcomes are affected by multiple variables, but proper statistical modeling can control for many of the different influences. Few studies have attempted to look at the long term effects of calfhood BRDC but consistent associations have not been identified. The objective of this observational, retrospective study was to determine the association between calfhood BRDC prior to 120 d of age and departure from the herd, milk production, and reproductive performance. The association between the occurrence of BRDC with departure from the herd prior to first calving depended on the birth year, but for 5 of the 6 years, animals that contracted BRDC were 1.62 to 4.98 times more likely to leave the herd than animals that did not contract BRDC. In addition, animals that contracted BRDC were also 1.28 times more likely to leave the herd between first and second calving than animals that did not contract BRDC. Furthermore, the age at BRDC occurrence was associated with departure from the herd. Animals that contracted BRDC pre-weaning were 2.62 times more likely to leave the herd prior to first calving than animals that contracted BRDC post-weaning. However, age of BRDC occurrence was not significantly associated with departure from the herd between first and second calving. The occurrence of BRDC during the first 120 d of life was associated with a 233 kg decrease in lactation-one production, but was not significantly associated with production in subsequent lactations. Finally, calfhood BRDC was not significantly associated with a decreased reproductive performance measured by calving interval. In conclusion, calfhood BRDC negatively impacts productivity both prior to and after first calving.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Robert L. Larson / Bradley J. White / Applying systems methods to cattle production requires investigators to think about whole systems when addressing study objectives. The research conducted for this dissertation emphasized studying whole systems using different methods. We studied cattle production systems through mathematical simulation and new indirect monitoring technologies. While the methods used for the research in this dissertation may be very different, all utilized systems methods to address the study objectives. Firstly, we applied systems thinking methods and developed a dynamic, deterministic systems simulation of cow-calf production over a 10-year horizon. This model was used to investigate the effects the duration of postpartum anestrus (dPPA) has on reproductive performance. A large range of dPPA have been reported, so various primiparous cow and multiparous cow dPPA were simulated. We found that increasing the dPPA for primiparous and multiparous cows had a negative impact on herd performance and that the dPPA is an important factor in determining cow-calf performance success. We then used the cow-calf simulation to explore the effects of breeding nulliparous cows prior to the rest of the herd, known as providing Heifer Lead Time (tHL). We found that increasing tHL improved herd performance, especially with longer dPPA for primiparous cows. Secondly, real-time location systems (RTLS) were used to indirectly monitor cattle behavior. These systems have been used to determine the amount of time cattle spend at eating and drinking locations. We modeled the probability of cattle participating in eating and drinking behavior when determined to be at these locations by RTLS and found that significant differences exist between individual calves and period of the day. Finally, we explored associations between bovine respiratory disease (BRD) and animal-to-animal contacts as determined by RTLS in beef cattle. We found that the probability of BRD diagnosis was associated with the amount of time 4 days’ ago that a calf was in calf-contact with calves assumed to be shedding BRD pathogens.

Orientador: Reinaldo Fernandes Cooke / Resumo: Esse experimento avaliou a suplementação de um ingrediente contendo saponina, manufaturado a partir do extrato purificado de Yucca schidigera [Micro-Aid (MA); DPI Global; Porterville CA], no desempenho, saúde e respostas fisiológicas em bezerros recém chegados em confinamento. Um total de 105 bezerros Angus x Hereford recém desmamados (75 machos e 30 femeas), provenientes de oito fazendas de cria, foram adquiridos em um leilão comercial no dia -2 e transportados (800 km; 12 h) até o local do experimento. Imediatamente após a chegada no dia -1 foi coletado o peso vazio, e os animais foram agrupados e alocados com acesso a vontade ao feno, suplemento mineral e água. No dia 0, os animais foram ranqueados por sexo, local de origem e peso vazio e alocados em uma das 21 baias (5 animais/baia; contendo uma ou duas fêmeas por baia). As baias receberam uma dieta completa (TMR) e um entre os três tratamentos (matéria natural): (1) 1 g /animal/dia de MA (M1; n=7), (2) 2 g /animal/dia de MA (M2; n=7), ou (3) sem suplementação de MA (CON; n=7). Os animais receberam a dieta completa calculada para conter 15% de sobra (matéria orgânica), e os tratamentos foram dispostos por cima da dieta durante o dia 0 ao 59. Os animais foram monitorados para sintomas de doença respiratória bovina (DRB) e coletou o consumo diário de cada baia. Os animais foram vacinados contra DRB no dia 0 e 21. O peso vazio final foi coletado no dia 60, e amostras de sangue foram coletadas nos dias 0, 2, 6, 10, 14, 21, 28... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Mestre

Respiratory diseases in cattle can cause economic losses due to the decreased dairy and meat production. Virus is the main reason for these diseases. Symptoms can be fever, cough and nasal discharge.     Influenza are a group of viruses belonged in the Ortomyxoviridae family. The big influenza groups are influenza A, B and C. The viruses can cause respiratory signs, and mammals can be affected. Recently a new influenza virus was found in the United States. The influenza virus was found in swine, but the natural host was later considered to be cattle. The virus was named influenza D. Different studies worldwide have confirmed the virus in a variety of regions. Antibodies have also been reported.     In this study, virologic and serologic methods were used to detect if influenza D circulates among cattle in Sweden. The serologic method performed was indirect ELISA. Serum and milk samples were investigated in the ELISA method. For the virologic detection a real-time RT-PCR was made, with a variety of study material.     Antibodies against influenza D were found in both serum and milk samples. No virus was found in the real-time RT-PCR. In Sweden the animal keeping is different compared to several other nations. For instance, the conditions of health and hygiene are better in Sweden, this may be an important cause of a system more resistant against spreading of infections. Influenza D could be more common in Sweden, but in that case further researches are needed to determine the prevalence.

Vacinas inativadas de vírus inteiro (WIV) são amplamente utilizadas para o controle de influenza A em suínos (SIV) nos Estados Unidos e Europa e conferem proteção contra cepas homólogas à vacina reduzindo a doença clínica. Porém, a proteção da WIV pode ser limitada contra um desafio heterólogo. O aumento da doença respiratória associado à vacina (VAERD) foi descrito em suínos vacinados com uma WIV contendo uma cepa δ1-cluster-H1N2 e desafiado com uma cepa heteróloga contendo a mesma hemaglutinina, H1N1pdm09. Nesse contexto, os suínos apresentaram pneumonia severa com aumento das lesões pulmonares associado ao uso da WIV. No primeiro manuscrito foi avaliado se a formulação da WIV, o tempo entre o reforço vacinal e o desafio, e a idade de vacinação tinham impacto em VAERD. Suínos foram vacinados com duas vacinas bivalentes, WIV-δ1H1N2/H3N2 (MN08-TX98) ou WIV-δ1H1N2/H1N1pdm09 (MN08-CA09), administradas em duas doses com intervalo de três semanas, e desfiados com H1N1pdm09, três semanas após o reforço. Além disso, dois grupos foram vacinados com uma WIV-δ1H1N2 (MN08) e desafiados três ou seis semanas após o reforço. Em um estudo subsequente, dois grupos vacinados com uma WIV-δ1H1N2 com duas doses da vacina em diferentes idades: a primeira dose com 4 ou 9 semanas de idade e o reforço com 7 ou 12 semanas de idade. E um grupo vacinado com uma vacina viva atenuada de influenza (LAIV). Os animais foram desafiados com H1N1pdm09 às 15 semanas de idade. Com exceção dos grupos MN08-CA09, LAIV e controles, todos os grupos WIV apresentaram lesões pulmonares consistentes com VAERD. Nenhum grupo induziu anticorpos neutralizantes para o H1N1pdm09, exceto MN08-CA09. No entanto, grupos vacinados com a WIV-MN08 em diferentes idades induziram anticorpos IgG não-neutralizantes com reatividade cruzada com o H1N1pdm09 no soro e no pulmão, comparado com LAIV e controles. Esses dados sugerem que a idade da primeira dose da vacina, a formulação com a vacina bivalente MN08-TX98 e o desafio seis semanas após o reforço vacinal, não preveniram o desenvolvimento de VAERD. Em contraste, a vacinação com a LAIV demonstrou proteção até oito semanas após reforço. No segundo manuscrito foi avaliado o impacto dos adjuvantes na formulação da WIV no modelo de VAERD. Cinco grupos foram vacinados com WIV-δ1H1N2 formuladas com diferentes adjuvantes comerciais: óleo em água 1 (OW1), OW2, nano-emulsão (NE), gel polímero (GP) e partículas imuno-estimulantes aquosa (IMP). O protocolo vacinal/desafio foi utilizado com três semanas de intervalo entre as doses. Os grupos vacinados com WIV-OW apresentaram lesões macroscópicas nos pulmões consistentes com VAERD comparado com WIV-NE, WIV-GP e controles. Nenhum dos grupos induziu anticorpos neutralizantes contra o vírus do desafio (H1N1pdm09). Similarmente, os grupos WIV-OW, WIV-NE e WIV-GP induziram anticorpos não neutralizantes IgG de reatividade cruzada contra o H1N1pdm09 no soro e pulmão. Apesar dos anticorpos não neutralizantes com reatividade cruzada nos grupos WIV-NE e WIV-GP, não apresentaram lesões pulmonares tão severas como os grupos OW. Além disso, os adjuvantes tiveram um papel significativo na imunogenicidade da WIV e no desenvolvimento de VAERD. / Whole inactivated virus (WIV) vaccines reduce clinical disease against homologous influenza A virus (IAV) infection and are widely used in swine; however, WIV has been associated with vaccine-associated enhanced respiratory disease (VAERD) when challenged with heterologous IAV of the same hemagglutinin subtype. Here, we evaluated the impact of age at vaccination and timing between vaccination and challenge on development of VAERD using a model with a human-like 1δ cluster swine MN08 H1N2 as the vaccine component and pandemic H1N1 (H1N1pdm09) virus as the challenge strain. Pigs were vaccinated with bivalent WIV vaccine containing H1N2-MN08/H3N2-TX98 or H1N2-MN08/H1N1pdm09-CA09. All groups were challenged with H1N1pdm09 at 3 weeks post-boost (wpb). In addition, a monovalent WIV MN08 H1N2 group was challenged at 6 wpb to determine if time post-vaccination played a role on VAERD. In a follow up study, we compared the time of first WIV vaccination (4 or 9 weeks of age) and the boost three weeks later (7 or 12 weeks of age) to determine if age at first vaccination or if 8 weeks duration between vaccination and challenge impacted VAERD. A live-attenuated influenza virus (LAIV) vaccine administered at 4 and 7 weeks of age was also included. Pigs from study 2 were challenged with H1N1pdm09 at 15 weeks of age. All mismatched WIV groups had significantly higher macroscopic and microscopic lung lesions compared with LAIV, bivalent MN08-CA09 and non-vaccinated challenge controls. These data suggest that the age of first vaccination or length of time between booster dose and subsequent challenge do not alter the development VAERD in WIV vaccinated pigs. In the second paper, we evaluated the impact of adjuvant in WIV vaccine on VAERD-affected pigs. Pigs were vaccinated with WIV containing swine MN08/H1N2 that were formulated with five different commercially available adjuvants: OW1, OW2, nano-emulsion (NE), gel polymer (GP), and aqueous immunostimulating particulate (IMP). Pigs were vaccinated with 2 doses, 3 weeks apart, by the intramuscular (WIV-OW1, -OW2, -NE, and -GP) or intranasal (WIV-IMP) routes. Non-vaccinated and challenged pigs (NV/C) and non-vaccinated, non-challenged pigs (NV/NC) were included as controls. Following challenge with H1N1pdm09, WIV-OW1 and WIV-OW2 groups had significantly higher percentages of macroscopic lung lesions consistent with VAERD compared to the NV/C controls, and in contrast to WIV-NE, WIV-GP and WIV-IMP. Prior to challenge, WIV-OW, NE and GP groups had the hemagglutination inhibition antibody (HI) titers to the vaccine strain compared with controls. The WIV-IMP group had HI mean titers below the positive cut-off, with no response to any immune parameter measured, so it could not be implicated or excluded in the VAERD model. None of the groups had cross-reactive HI antibodies against the H1N1pdm09. WIV-OW groups had significantly higher levels of IgG antibody in serum against homologous and heterologous virus; however, the WIV-NE and WIV-GP groups also had serum IgG antibody against both viruses, so presence of total virus IgG alone did not explain the different VAERD outcomes. Adjuvant played a significant role in WIV immunogenicity and in VAERD; however the mechanism requires further investigation.