Cheap water, massive federal subsidies and political clout have sustained rice farming in the lower Colorado River basin for decades, but now the industry is in a precarious situation. Drought, population growth upstream and economic boom in Austin are pushing out the practice because of increasing demand for Texas’ scarce water resources. The tightening supply of water raised questions about the sustainability of producing such a water intensive crop in the state. Drought has cut off the cheap water to farmers for three years, and a mobilized coalition of upper river basin interests is calling for a permanent end to subsidized water. It’s increasingly clear that the politics of water in a drought-prone future is likely to side with cities, where voters are heavily concentrated. Rice farmers have scrambled to adapt. Larger rice farms have switched to groundwater. Some farmers have swapped rice for corn, milo or soybeans to keep their income. Crop insurance, which made up for at least 55 percent of the money lost in drought, softened the blow for rice farmers. But revenues in rice-related industries in Wharton, Matagorda and Colorado counties have dropped sharply and some businesses have already packed it in. These new realities cast uncertainties throughout the lower river basin, where locals fear this way of life is disappearing. / text

Agrichemicals have been misused by rice farmers in Vietnam for a long time. This thesis has studied the rice farmers’ knowledge, risk awareness and risk perception to get an understanding of the rice farmers’ agrichemical management. 15 rice farmers in An Giang province in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam were interviewed in 2015 when the winter-spring rice was cultivated. Field method Contextual Inquiry was used to observe and interview the rice farmers. The rice farmers in Mekong Delta, Vietnam think that they are exposed to a medium risk when handling pesticides. They think that pesticides are the most effective pest controlling method. They do not use any protective gear because the weather is to hot which makes the protective gear uncomfortable to wear, even though the majority of the farmers have experienced health effects. The farmers overuse agrichemicals. The rice farmers can increase their gross income if they start using agrichemical more responsible. The majority of the farmers do not follow recommendations established in research. The Vietnamese government have a big responsibility to implement new laws to create a healthier and more environmentally sound agriculture.

The Rwandan countryside is currently undergoing a process of rapid reform under ambitious government programs to modernize agriculture for participation in national and international markets. While the government asserts that it is pursuing pro-poor growth, many critics present significant evidence to the contrary. This thesis examines the use of farmers cooperatives within the ongoing government campaign of agricultural modernization, and it asks whether the co-ops themselves are sources of personal empowerment and material gain for the small producers. Adopting the “sceptical” post-development position advanced by Aram Ziai, the present research attempts to take a pragmatic look at the ways in which the co-ops meet or fail to meet the material and non-material needs of their members while appreciating that cultural preferences are heterogeneous and dynamic. While the use of farmers cooperatives appears appropriate for the Rwandan marshland, the co-ops examined very much fall short of the post-development social movement model.

abstract: This dissertation is a detailed rhetorical analysis of interviews with rice farmers in central Java, Indonesia and documents published by the global NGOs United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and CGIAR. Using theories of materiality, literacies, and environmental rhetorics, I examine how seemingly distinct and disparate humans, organizations, and inanimates are actually entangled agents in a dynamic conversation. I have termed that conversation the discourse of rice farming. Studying local and global together challenges conventional dichotomous thinking about farming and food. Looking at this conversation as an entanglement reveals what Karen Barad has defined in Meeting the Universe Halfway as the intra-relatedness of all agents. I focus on rice farming because rice is a food staple around the world and a major component of global agriculture initiatives by FAO and CGIAR. I argue that farmers construct their jobs in terms of production, food sovereignty, and community. The NGOs construct agriculture in terms of consumption, food security, and poverty alleviation. In my project I emphasize the need for global agents to better account for how farmers construct agriculture. Accounting for how all agents impact the discourse of rice farming is the only way to come to an objective understanding rice farming's impact on local and global scales. My argument adds to the field of environmental rhetorics because most published case studies are about the United States and thus are limited in their applicability. And it enriches global conversations about food security and food justice because it shares accounts from actual farmers who are often conspicuously absent from literature on those topics. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation English 2015

The Rwandan countryside is currently undergoing a process of rapid reform under ambitious government programs to modernize agriculture for participation in national and international markets. While the government asserts that it is pursuing pro-poor growth, many critics present significant evidence to the contrary. This thesis examines the use of farmers cooperatives within the ongoing government campaign of agricultural modernization, and it asks whether the co-ops themselves are sources of personal empowerment and material gain for the small producers. Adopting the “sceptical” post-development position advanced by Aram Ziai, the present research attempts to take a pragmatic look at the ways in which the co-ops meet or fail to meet the material and non-material needs of their members while appreciating that cultural preferences are heterogeneous and dynamic. While the use of farmers cooperatives appears appropriate for the Rwandan marshland, the co-ops examined very much fall short of the post-development social movement model.

Pour répondre à la demande de la population croissante, la production de riz doit être augmentée de 40% d’ici 2030. Cependant cette production émet des gaz à effet serre (GES), tel que le méthane (CH4), qui contribue au réchauffement climatique. Les stratégies de gestion, telles que le drainage des sols et la gestion durable des résidus, sont essentielles pour diminuer les émissions de GES des rizières, mais cela entrent souvent en conflit avec les pratiques de gestion des riziculteurs. L'objectif de ce projet était d'étudier le potentiel d'atténuation des GES par des pratiques de drainage et de gestion des résidus et par l’identification des opportunités et les contraintes auxquelles sont confrontés les petits exploitants dans la mise en œuvre des pratiques. Le projet a été élaboré en utilisant une approche interdisciplinaire incluant mésocosme en chambre climatique, des campagnes sur le terrain et une enquête après des agriculteurs au Vietnam. La première étude sur le mésocosme a été menée pour identifier l'impact du drainage en début et mi-saison sur les émissions de CH4 et de N2O par des sols amendés avec des résidus frais et compostés à différents niveaux de sol C (article I). La deuxième étude sur le mésocosme incluait des résidus de riz enrichis en 13C pour comprendre l'effet de la pré-plantation, d’un drainage précoce et à mi-saison sur la contribution des résidus C aux émissions de CH4 (article III). Des expériences de terrain ont été menées pendant deux saisons (printemps et été) pour documenter l'effet de la pré-plantation, du drainage en début et à mi-saison sur les émissions de CH4 et de N2O par des sols modifiés par l’apport de résidus dans deux systèmes de gestion d’eau: un système efficace de gestion de l'eau et un système de contrôle d'eau conventionnel (article II). Trente-cinq petits producteurs de riz ont été interviewés pour évaluer la diversité des pratiques de gestion des terres dans la région et comprendre leurs pratiques de culture, leurs défis et leurs contraintes à l'échelle de la rizière. Quatre ateliers ont été menés avec des agriculteurs, des conseillers agricoles locaux et régionaux pour concevoir et évaluer les pratiques de production de riz adaptées au climat, basées sur la gestion de l'eau et des résidus (article IV). Les études de laboratoire et de terrain ont montré que les pratiques de drainage (pré-plantation et drainage précoce) pouvaient atténuer les émissions de GES sans compromettre le rendement du riz. Au laboratoire, le drainage avant plantation a considérablement réduit les émissions de CH4 de 70 à 80%, alors que sur le terrain, le drainage se montre moins efficace dans la réduction des émissions de CH4 en raison des activités opérées par les agriculteurs avant transplantion. Dans l’étude de terrain, le drainage précoce et en mi-saison a diminué les émissions de CH4 de 67% et 43% dans les systèmes comprenant une gestion de l’eau efficaces et inefficaces. Au laboratoire, l’addition d’un drainage en début et mi-saison a réduit les émissions de CH4 de 75 à 90%. Sur le terrain, le système efficace de contrôle de l'eau associé avec une bonne aération des sols a considérablement augmenté le potentiel de diminution du CH4 des sols drainés et modifiés par les résidus. L'étude isotopique a indiqué que l'aération des sols au stade précoce (pré-plantation ou début de saison) réduit les émissions de CH4 dérivés des résidus de 57 à 87%. Cependant, les résultats ont mis en évidence que l’amélioration des pratiques de drainage impactaient très peu les émissions de N2O. Les résultats de l'étude participative ont souligné l'importance d'impliquer les agriculteurs et les acteurs locaux dans la conception des systèmes d'atténuation des GES. Ces résultats ont mis en évidence les contraintes et les opportunités possibles pour la mise en œuvre réussie des stratégies d'atténuation des GES dans les rizières des petits exploitants. / Rice production needs to increase by 40% to meet the demand of the world’s growing population by 2030, yet rice production contribute to global warming with elevated GHG emissions, particularly of methane (CH4). Management strategies, such as drainage of paddy soils & sustainable residue management are essential in order to mitigate GHG emission from rice systems, but they often conflict with the practical management preferences of rice farmers. The objective of this project was to investigate the GHG mitigation potential of drainage practices and residue management techniques, and to identify the constraints and opportunities faced by smallholders in the implementation of mitigation practices under local conditions. The project was formulated using an interdisciplinary approach that included two mesocosm studies in growth chamber, two field campaigns and a field survey of farmers in Vietnam. First mesocosm study was conducted to verify the impact of early season drainage and midseason drainage on CH4 and N2O emissions from fresh and composted residue-amended soils at different soil C levels (Paper I). Then second mesocosm study was conducted using 13C-enriched rice residue to understand the effect of pre-planting, early-season and midseason drainage on the residue carbon contribution to CH4 emissions (Paper III). Field experiments based on farmers’ field conditions were conducted for two seasons (spring and summer) to document the effect of pre-planting, early-season and midseason drainage on CH4 and N2O emissions from residue-amended soils under two field water management systems: an efficient field water control system and a conventional, inefficient field water control system (Paper II). Thirty-five smallholder rice farmers were interviewed to capture the diversity of different land management practices in the area and understand their cropping practices, challenges and constraints faced at field scale. Four workshops were conducted with farmers, local agricultural advisors and regional stakeholders to design and assess the climate-smart rice production practices, based on water and residue management (Paper IV). The lab and field studies showed that drainage practices (pre-planting and early season drainage) had the potential to mitigate GHG emissions without compromising rice yield. Pre-planting drainage greatly reduced CH4 emissions in the lab experiment by 70-80%, while in field condition pre-planting drainage had less effect on CH4 emission reduction due to constraints with farmers’ field operations before transplanting. Early season drainage reduced CH4 emissions in both lab and field experiments. In field study, early plus midseason drainage lowered the CH4 emissions by 67% and 43% in the efficient and inefficient field water management systems respectively. In lab, early plus midseason drainage lowered CH4 emissions by 75-90 %. The efficient field water control system and good soil aeration significantly increased the CH4 mitigation potential of the drainage regimes from residue-amended soils. The isotopic study in lab indicated that soil aeration in the early stage (pre-planting or early season) reduced the residue-derived CH4 emissions by 57-87%. The results highlighted that the effects of improved drainage practices on N2O emissions were very low when considering the total GHG effects of CH4 and N2O. The results of the participatory study highlighted the importance of involving farmers and local stakeholders in the process of designing the mitigating systems. The active involvement of farmers and local stakeholders in the process of designing, testing and assessing the water management systems highlighted the constraints and feasible options for successful implementation of GHG mitigation strategies in smallholders’ rice fields.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(農学) / 甲第20004号 / 農博第2188号 / 新制||農||1044(附属図書館) / 学位論文||H28||N5013(農学部図書室) / 33100 / 京都大学大学院農学研究科生物資源経済学専攻 / (主査)教授 福井 清一, 教授 伊藤 順一, 教授 水野 広祐 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Fundação de Apoio a Pesquisa e à Inovação Tecnológica do Estado de Sergipe - FAPITEC/SE / Various fields of knowledge discuss the classical model of economic development and the impact on life on the planet. These settings cause multiple demands on enterprises and invoke a restructuring of the management models adopted by these. The environmental and economic responsibility has become a term discussed in the academic world, this event directed the society towards sustainability. In this thesis, using the approach: economic, social and environmental, we reached the conclusion that sustainable development implies a link between the natural social sciences. In this context, the main purpose of this thesis was to develop a sustainable management model (PSG) which has views to profitability; the proper management of natural resources, and improve the quality of life of the different actors involved in a project, this one is of any kind. taking as a basis for the understanding of this study, we investigated the perimeter of the irrigated lots of rice farmers - the lower San Francisco - the city of Flores Island / SE, 135 km from Aracaju / SE. Using management tools and indicators: environmental; social and economic allies to secondary data. Within this context, it was possible to specifically examine: the use and occupation of the basin; the physical medium - water; identify the perpetrators members from human activities; ascertain the feasibility of the proposed model; contribute to public policy. The method was based on a systemic approach. It was exploratory in nature; descriptive; field, experimental and documentary. Approach quantitative and qualitative. Data collection: semi-structured questionnaire and interviews - were analyzed according to the content of Bardin. Thus, it is expected to collaborate: with the academic community adding an interdisciplinary approach new contributions in environmental sciences; rationale and implementation of public policies. Therefore, it was demonstrated that, by inserting the sustainable PSG management is possible to manage quality and a production process liquid (either agricultural or not), particularly, minimizing environmental impact; generating wealth and, consequently, rising the quality of life of the actors involved in the process in question. / Varias áreas do conhecimento discutem o modelo clássico de desenvolvimento econômico e os impactos sobre a vida no planeta. Estas colocações provocam múltiplas demandas sobre os empreendimentos e invocam uma reestruturação dos modelos de gestão por estes adotados. A responsabilidade socioambiental e econômica se tornou um termo discutido no universo acadêmico, esta circunstância direcionou a sociedade no caminho da sustentabilidade. Nesta tese, utilizando-se da abordagem: econômica, social e ambiental, chegou-se a conclusão de que o desenvolvimento sustentável implica numa articulação entre as ciências sociais naturais. Nesse contexto, a finalidade principal desta Tese foi o de desenvolver um Plano sustentável de gestão (PSG) que tenha vistas para a lucratividade; o manejo adequado dos recursos naturais, e melhore a qualidade de vida dos diferentes atores envolvidos em um empreendimento, este, seja de qualquer natureza. Tomando-se como base para a compreensão deste estudo, foi pesquisado o perímetro dos lotes irrigados dos rizicultores – no baixo São Francisco – no município de Ilha das Flores/ SE, a 135 km de Aracaju/SE. Utilizando-se ferramentas de gestão e indicadores: ambientais; sociais e econômicos aliados a dados secundários. Dentro deste contexto, foi possível especificamente analisar: o uso e ocupação da bacia; o meio físico – água; identificar os elementos agressores oriundos de ações antrópicas; averiguar a viabilidade do modelo proposto; contribuir com as políticas públicas. O método foi baseado em um enfoque sistêmico. Foi de natureza exploratória; descritiva; de campo, experimental e documental. Abordagem quanti-qualitativa. A coleta dos dados: questionário semiestruturado e entrevistas – foram analisados de acordo com o conteúdo de Bardin. Assim, espera-se colaborar: com a comunidade acadêmica acrescentando de modo interdisciplinar novas contribuições nas ciências ambientais; fundamentação e a implementação de políticas públicas. Portanto, demonstrou-se que, através da inserção do PSG- plano sustentável de gestão é possível gerenciar com qualidade e liquidez um processo produtivo (seja agrícola ou não), principalmente, minimizando impactos ambientais; gerando riquezas, e consequentemente, elevando-se a qualidade de vida dos atores envolvidos com o processo em questão

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The knowledge of the water volume used in rice farming is of fundamental importance for the solution related to water distribution problems between the multiple uses and the grant concession. In this way, the objective of this work was to quantify the water volume used in rice farming, through simplified methods of flow measurement in different soils classes, as subsidy to the administration of water resources and to relate it to soil attributes. The study was implanted in four municipal districts, producers of irrigated rice, of the State of Rio Grande do Sul: Cacequi, Cachoeira do Sul, Manoel Viana and Santa Maria, totaling seven areas with extensions between 0.66 to 30.1 ha. Were measured the flow and classified the soils of each area. The methodology of flow measurement consisted of the installation of simple hydraulic structures. The structures were installed in the irrigation channels and in some drainage ones. This methodology transforms the flow in volume through empiric equations. Later, the monitored volume was compared to real hydric balance volume to validation of flow measurement method (automonitoring). The characterization of the soil was accomplished through the profile description for obtaining the pedogenetic horizons. Later, physical analyses were accomplished, in laboratory, as the density (soil and particle), the porosity (macro, micro and total), the texture (clay, silte and sand), the hydraulic conductivity and the chemical analyses as soil pH, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, saturation (bases and aluminum). The rate of water infiltration into soil in the field was obtained through the double concentric rings infiltrometer. The soils classification was determined to the fourth categorical level adopted by the Brazilian System of Soil Classification (EMBRAPA, 2006). The results showed similarity comparing the automonitoring technique and the real hydric balance. Only two soil classes occurred: Planossolos end Gleissolos. The relation between the soil sandy layer thickness and water volume used in irrigation was directly proportional. Already the clay fraction and volume relationship was inversely proportional. Most of the areas showed high soil density and low total porosity. The saturated hydraulic conductivity was classified between very slow to slow. The areas that presented larger infiltration rates, in the beginning of the test, were: Cacequi (No Till) and Cachoeira do Sul (Conventional). In the first, due to the high concentration sand, and in the second, due to soil surface was turned over before the infiltration test. In this way, was concluded that the automonitoring technique was validated. The Manoel Viana area showed discrepant conflicting volume from the others. The quantification of water volume used depends almost exclusively of the soil class and only a few of the soil management system. An increase in clay content in the layer under the sand layer decreases the water volume in irrigation. The area that not showed B horizon had the greater volume. Soil density data, total porosity, the saturated hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate did not have similar behavior in all evaluated areas. / O conhecimento do volume de água utilizado em lavouras orizícolas é de fundamental importância para a solução de problemas relativos à distribuição da água entre os usos múltiplos e à concessão da outorga. Deste modo, o objetivo deste trabalho foi quantificar o volume de água usado em lavouras orizícolas, por meio de métodos simplificados de medição de vazão em áreas de diferentes regiões produtoras no sul do Rio Grande do Sul, como subsídio à gestão de recursos hídricos e relacioná-lo com atributos do solo. O estudo foi implantado em quatro municípios, produtores de arroz irrigado, no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul: Cacequi, Cachoeira do Sul, Manoel Viana e Santa Maria, totalizando sete áreas com extensões entre 0,66 a 30,1 hectares. Foi calculada a vazão e classificado o solo de cada área de várzea. A metodologia de medição de vazão consistiu na instalação de estruturas hidráulicas simples. As estruturas foram instaladas nos canais de irrigação e em alguns de drenagem. Esta metodologia transforma a vazão em volume por meio de equações empíricas. Posteriormente o volume monitorado foi comparado ao volume do balanço hídrico real para a validação do método de medição de vazão (automonitoramento). Foi realizada a caracterização do solo através da descrição de perfil para a obtenção dos horizontes pedogenéticos. Em seguida, foram realizadas análises físicas, em laboratório, para determinar parâmetros como a densidade (do solo e de partícula), a porosidade (macro, micro e total), a textura (argila, silte e areia), a condutividade hidráulica saturada, e as análises químicas como pH do solo, cálcio, magnésio, alumínio, saturação (bases e alumínio).A taxa de infiltração de água no solo foi realizada à campo e obtida por meio do infiltrômetro de duplo anéis concêntricos. A classificação dos solos foi determinada até o quarto nível categórico adotada pelo SBCS (EMBRAPA, 2006). Os resultados mostraram similaridade na comparação entre a técnica de automonitoramento e o balanço hídrico real. Ocorreram apenas duas classes de solo: Planossolos e Gleissolos. A relação entre a espessura da camada arenosa e o volume de água utilizado na irrigação foi diretamente proporcional. Já a fração argila e o volume foi inversamente proporcional. A maioria das áreas apresentaram alta densidade do solo e baixa porosidade total. A classificação da condutividade hidráulica saturada foi de muito lenta à lenta. As áreas que apresentaram maiores taxas de infiltração, no início do teste foram: Cacequi (Plantio Direto) e Cachoeira do sul (Convencional). Na primeira, devido à elevada concentração de areia, e, na segunda pelo revolvimento da superfície do solo antes do teste de infiltração. Desta forma, conclui-se que a técnica de automonitoramento foi validada. A área de Manoel Viana apresentou volume discrepante das demais. A quantificação do volume de água usado depende quase exclusivamente da classe de solo e muito pouco do sistema de cultivo. Um aumento no teor de argila na camada subjacente à camada arenosa diminui o volume de água na irrigação. A área que não apresentou o horizonte B registrou o maior volume utilizado. Os dados de densidade do solo, porosidade total, condutividade hidráulica saturada e infiltração não tiveram comportamento semelhante em todas as áreas avaliadas.

Pesticide use in rice farming is a common practice in the Mekong Delta and poses ecological risks to aquatic organisms, the environment, and human health. This study focused on the ecological risk assessment of pesticide use in rice farming using the PRIMET model as a decision support tool to evaluate the risks of pesticide exposure, ecotoxicity, and risk characterization, as well as employing the species sensitivity distribution (SSD) assessment model to calculate the potentially affected fraction (PAF) of species based on the computed predicted environmental concentrations (PECs) from PRIMET. The study involved collating and analyzing data on pesticide inventories and the application of 138 farmers, which formed the basis for pesticide use, farming practices,environmental variables, and ecological indicators from two provinces in the Mekong Delta: Dong Thap and Hau Giang. This study showed that pesticide use was high with a wide range of pesticide types. The ecotoxicity assessment indicated that some pesticides pose a potential acute and chronic risk to non-target organisms. The active ingredient identified as posing acute toxicity risk with an ETR >100 is the insecticide indoxacarb, which belongs to the chemical class of oxadiazine of which Arthropods were seen to be highly sensitive to when exposed making them more at risk even at very low concentrations. In contrast, fish generally exhibit moderate tolerance and are sensitive to certain chemicals. The risk characterization revealed that the ecological risks of pesticide use were higher in Dong Thap than in Hau Giang due to differences in ecological conditions, pesticide practices, and farming systems. Overall, this study highlights the need for improved pesticide management practices in rice farming in the Mekong Delta region to reduce ecological risks and protect the environment and human health. The practical and theoretical implications of this study are discussed.