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This thesis offers the first full-scale analysis of the epigraphic evidence for Roman freedwomen, i.e. an analysis of all Latin inscriptions mentioning libertae in the Roman Empire – almost 10,000 texts – from the city of Rome, Italy and the provinces. The aim of this project is to present a fuller image of the lives of these women, based on the evidence left behind by themselves and those in close contact with them, to put a check on their portrayal in the ancient literary sources, which has strongly influenced the modern understanding of libertae. The inscriptions have been drawn from the standard corpora and databases (esp. CIL and AE), and assembled in a searchable FileMaker Pro database. The study of the data has been conducted in two parts, the first focussing on the role of freedwomen in the familia, and the second on the role achieved by libertae in their communities and the wider Roman society, including also analysis of the identity of freedwomen’s partners, the marital terms used in inscriptions to describe married freedwomen, the legal status of freedwoman’s children, the women’s (and their relatives’) involvement in professions as well as cultic activities. The method employed in the discussion of the material is that of methodical argumentation, progressively building a new and fresh image of Roman libertae in the course of the thesis. The results demonstrate that the focus on the city of Rome adopted by many scholars distorts the picture substantially, as does the focus on the literary sources; in particular, the women emerge from this study as endowed with greater agency than hitherto accepted, and their ‘double flaw’ of having a servile past and of being of female gender appears less of an obstacle in their lives than widely assumed: epigraphically attested libertae do not conform to the image of ‘the Roman freedman’. This thesis thus represents both a contribution to the study of Latin epigraphy and the study of women in the Roman world. The analysis is supported by two appendices: the Appendix Epigraphica offers a list of many of the texts discussed in the chapters, together with an English translation; the Appendix Graphica assembles all the graphs and tables employed in the thesis to analyse the data.

The following thesis is a collection of three case studies which shed light on the ideal roles of a daughter in the Roman family over the course of her life. Plentiful recent scholarship on children in the Roman world exists, but few scholars have focused exclusively on girls and women qua daughters. The case studies are centred on epistolary sources which span the late Republic to the second century CE. The chapters of this thesis concern Timoxena, the two-year-old daughter of Plutarch; Minicia Marcella, the teenage daughter of Fundanus; and Tullia, the adult daughter of Cicero. These case studies will illustrate primarily that adult behaviours were constantly idealized throughout the life course of a daughter, but the expectations for a daughter did change to accommodate the actual age of the daughter concerned. In addition, the ideal behaviours expected of a daughter did not necessarily become more gendered as she grew older and became a full member of society, but her contribution to the bond of reciprocal obligation with her parents, dictated by pietas, was expected to intensify as she matured. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

The Roman Empress Sabina is a pivotal figure in the representation of imperial women. She appears with more portrait types and on a higher proportion of the coinage produced both at Rome and in the provinces than any of her predecessors. While her sculpted likenesses do not compare in number to Livia’s, they do exceed those of most of the intervening women. This variety and quantity of representation created a new paradigm that was followed in subsequent reigns. All of this is contrasted with the lack of attention paid to Sabina in ancient historical writing, making the portraits of Sabina the best source on her life. My study differs from previous examinations of Sabina’s portraits in its methodological approach. I begin with a study of the coinage produced at Rome. I establish a concrete chronology of these coins through the use of die studies of both the aurei and dupondii/asses in order to resolve unanswered questions about the sequence and dating of Sabina’s portrait types. Through this new chronology, I interpret the significance of each portrait type. I then conduct the first detailed study of the provincial coin portraits of Sabina. The differences between the distribution of portrait types in quantity, chronology, and geography between the imperial and provincial coins reveals some of the mechanisms behind the two media and the reception of Sabina throughout the Empire. Comparing these data with the sculpture helps illuminate the distinctions in production and dissemination between media. Through this study, I create the most complete picture of Sabina’s portraiture to date and challenge previously held assumptions concerning the mechanisms of portrait creation. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / The Empress Sabina was married to the Emperor Hadrian for his entire reign of over twenty years (117-138). Although she is almost completely absent from the ancient historical record, her portraits are more plentiful and varied than those of any imperial woman before her, making these our best source of information about her. This study covers the portraits of Sabina which appear on coins produced in Rome, coins produced in the Roman provinces, and sculpture produced throughout the Empire. The analysis of the coins produced at Rome establishes the chronology of the different representations of Sabina. This chronology facilitates the interpretation of why these changes in the Empress’s appearance were made. Comparison between the portraits in different media and from different areas of the Empire reveals the impact of context on the production, dissemination, and style of imperial portraits.

The dissertation examines Suetonius' ideals of feminine conduct by exploring the behaviors he lauds or censures in imperial women. The approach comes from scholarship on the biographer's practice of evaluating of his male subjects against a consistent ideal. This study argues that Suetonius applies the same method to imperial women. His tendency to speak of women in standardized rubrics (ancestry, marriage, the birth of children) suggests that he has a fixed notion of model feminine behavior, one that values women for being wives and mothers. Chapter 1 argues that because Suetonius' Lives center on male subjects, his picture of women is fragmented at best. The biographer uses this fragmentation to manipulate his female characters. Livia, for instance, is cast as a "good" wife in the Augustus, but as a "bad" mother in the Tiberius. Suetonius' often inconsistent drawing of women reveals that he uses them primarily to elucidate certain aspects of their associated men. Having a "good" wife, mother, or sister reflects well on an emperor, while having a "bad" one reveals his lack of authority. Chapter 2 explores the role of mother. Atia serves as the "good," silent type and Livia and Agrippina the Younger the "bad," meddling type. Chapter 3 investigates the role of wife. Livia exemplifies the "good," loyal wife who is not politically active, while Agrippina the Younger illustrates the "bad," sexually manipulative wife who murders her husband to advance her son. Chapter 4 looks at members of the wider imperial family, noting that Suetonius writes more about sexually promiscuous women, such as Drusilla and Julia, than those women, like Domitilla the Younger, who followed social norms by marrying and bearing children. As a result, the Caesares are slanted towards negative portrayals of women. Chapter 5 "reassembles" the fragmented picture of women. The small role that Suetonius writes for Poppaea reveals his independence from Tacitus. The biographer's portrayal of Livia and Agrippina subverts ideals espoused on imperial coins and statues. Overall, the most important role for women in the Caesares is that of mother. By focusing on his portrayal of women, this study also sheds light on Suetonius' use of rhetoric and stereotypes. / Dissertation

This paper looks at the roles of patrician and plebeian Roman women in their religion. It investigates the topic during the period of the Republic (509-30 BCE) and pulls the information together in a concise manner. The primary sources used were narrative histories and literature from the late Republic, as well as from the Imperial period up through the second century, that reflect the opinions of the Imperial period. The secondary sources precipitated further research into primary sources and comparisons of these studies. It was found that women played private and secondary roles in their religion. Due to changes in the laws and in the society, women in the late Republic had more control over their own interests than did the women in the early Republic, although this control did not widely spread to their religious rituals. Public roles and power were basically limited to the Vestal Virgins.

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The purpose of this dissertation is to conduct a comprehensive study of Roman women's portrait busts of the third century AD. The free-standing portrait bust forms a discrete historical category through which to trace developments in third-century women's portraiture. The high-status, commemorative tradition of the bust and the durability of this format, which could be displayed and utilised in a large range of different contexts, made this an important portrait genre for women in the third century. These busts consequently offer powerful insight into the ideological function and status of Roman women in the third century. By placing third-century women's busts in the context of their form, history and provenance, I hope to create a methodology that allows me to ascertain the ancient intention of these portraits. My hypothesis is that, while elements of self-styling and bust-format reveal innovation, the moral vocabulary of Empire as presented in women's portrait busts did not change dramatically in the third century. I will argue that these portraits reflect the heightened ideological status of certain forms of Roman femininity in this period. Rather than being expressive of spiritual escapism or emotional turmoil women's portrait busts functioned as a means of re-confirming the Roman rhetoric of feminine virtue in the third century.

The myth of the Amazons began in Ancient Greece. Renditions of the myth were found in art and literature of the Greeks and Romans in the ancient world. The image of the Amazons changed with the culture and ideology that discussed them. The Amazon myth reflected Greek and Roman views of women. Through looking closely at the three stages of the myth of the Amazons one can determine the myth strengthens the image of women that was held by men of the ancient world. The Amazons were connected with the heroes Heracles, Theseus, and Alexander the Great. Individual Amazons such as Antiope, Penthesilea, and Camilla were also dominant in the mythology of the Amazons. By completing a literary analysis of the myths of the Amazons beginning in the eighth century B.C. and through the fourth century A.D. one is able to see what was expected and deemed acceptable of women.