La qualité de la vision sensorielle, l’aspect oculomoteur et la cognition ont très souvent été abordés de façon individuelle. D’un côté, les désordres de la vergence, liés fréquemment à des désordres de l’accommodation, entraînent des symptômes tels que douleurs, diminution de la qualité de vision mais aussi problèmes d’attention et de concentration, pouvant avoir une incidence sur l’apprentissage. D’un autre côté, les désordres de la vergence sont aussi liés à des problèmes oculomoteurs dans la coordination et la précision des saccades, domaine sur lequel repose l’aptitude à la lecture. L’ambition de cette thèse est d’approfondir ces constats et d’introduire des moyens expérimentaux afin de mettre en évidence les liens entre accommodation/vergence (A/V), contrôle des saccades et leur interférence avec la cognition. Dans une première partie, nous avons étudié l’impact des dysfonctionnements A/V classique et l’impact d’un conflit A/V induit sur les performances au test de Stroop, reconnu pour évaluer certains types de fonctions cognitives, faisant appel aux capacités basiques de lecture et exigeant un déploiement attentionnel élevé. Pour une population d’étudiants, les résultats ont montré des performances diminuées en cas de désordres de la vergence existant et en cas de conflit A/V induit, attestant d’une incidence négative des dysfonctionnements et des déséquilibres A/V induits sur les fonctions exécutives et les processus attentionnels. Ici, l’hypothèse d’une interaction des processus visuels et cognitifs en parallèle apparait plus plausible que celle d’un model sériel, avec une performance cognitive retardée par un problème visuel. Dans un deuxième temps, une réhabilitation de la vergence chez les sujets en présentant des désordres a permis une restauration des capacités, a montré une amélioration de la coordination des saccades et a eu une incidence positive sur l’aspect cognitif pendant la lecture, venant confirmer la théorie d’interférence en parallèle. L’ensemble des travaux apportent des ouvertures de recherches (1) sur le plan théorique, en croisant des domaines comme la neurologie, la psychologie cognitive, l’oculomotricité, l’optométrie et l’orthoptie ; (2) sur le plan clinique, en proposant des tests caractéristiques de dépistage ainsi que des solutions d’amélioration ; (3) sur le plan éducatif, en proposant des pistes pour expliquer l’incidence que le système visuel peut avoir sur les performances académiques. / Quality of sensory vision, eye movements and cognition have been broached one by one so far. However, recent studies suggest possible interactions between these fields without clarifying the link. On the one hand, vergence/accommodative (V/A) dysfunctions leads to visual symptoms like sore eyes, blurry or double vision but also problems of attention, concentration, and appear to have a negative impact on academic performances. On the other hand, people diagnosed with vergence disorders also show poor coordination of their saccades, which are essential in reading and cognitive demanding activities. The goal of this thesis is to go into this analysis in depth and to propose experimental ways to evidence the links between V/A disorders, control of the saccades and their influence on cognition. In a first part, we studied the impact of typical V/A disorders and the impact of an induced A/V conflict on the performances during the Stroop test, which is a neurological test known for evaluating cognitive executive functions like inhibition, demanding a high attentional deployment and stimulating basic reading skills. Results show that vergence dysfunctions and V/A inducted conflict have a negative influence on the Stroop performances in students, leading to a diminished control of cognitive functions. These results suggest a more parallel interaction between visual and attentional processes instead of a serial model where vision would be a prerequisite to cognition, slowing down the cognitive processes when disturbed. Secondly, we pursue this theory: vergence rehabilitation in subjects diagnosed with vergence disorders permitted an increase of the vergence capacities, showed an improvement on the coordination of the reading saccades and had a positive influence on the cognitive aspect during reading. This work gives new research possibilities at different level: (1) at a theoretical level, it permits to cross fields like neurology, cognitive psychology, eye movements and optometry; (2) at a clinical level, it suggests typical tests for a more efficient screening and opens new perspectives on solutions to rehabilitate people with V/A disorders; (3) at an educational level, it gives clues on how visual functions could affect academic performances.

Purpose: Due to the neurological aspects of Parkinson’s Disease (PD) and the sensitivity of eye movements to neurological issues, eye tracking has the potential to be an objective biomarker with higher accuracy in diagnosis than current clinical standards. Currently when PD is diagnosed clinically, there is an accuracy of 74% when diagnosed by a general practitioner and 82% when diagnosed by a movement disorder specialist. This study was designed to: 1. Assess eye movements as a potential biomarker for Parkinson’s Disease. 2. Determine if eye movements can distinguish between Parkinson’s Disease and commonly confounded movement disorders with parkinsonian symptoms. 3. Determine if the eye movements of Rapid Eye Movement Behavior Disorder (RBD) patients who will likely convert to PD are distinguishable from healthy controls and if RBD patients have eye movements with similar features to PD. Methods: The eye movements of 160 subjects (43 healthy controls, 63 PD, 31 REM Behavior Disorder, and 22 Other Parkinsonisms) were recorded at 500 Hz and analyzed. Each subject performed five eye tracking tasks that included reflexive saccades, inhibition of reflexive saccades, predictive saccades, and reading. Based on an analysis of selected eye movement measurement parameters, a multivariable logistic regression model was developed that compared: PD vs. Control, PD vs. “Other”, PD vs RBD, and Control vs RBD. The resulting predictive model was then assessed for accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. Results: After screening, the most statistically significant predictors that were included in the final multivariate model were: Site, Sex, Age, Age squared, UPDRS Score, mean absolute fixation velocity (Horizontal Step Task), saccadic duration, average saccadic velocity, and mean fixation velocity (Predictive Task). The model predicted with an accuracy of: 92% for Controls, 88% for PD, 86% for RBD, and 68% for Other Parkinsonisms. The model was best at distinguishing between PD and Other Parkinsomisms with an accuracy of 89% and RBD and Controls with an accuracy of 88%. Conclusion: This research found that specific combinations of eye tracking parameters from simple tasks can be used to distinguish between PD and commonly confounded movement disorders with parkinsonism symptoms. The model’s ability to distinguish between groups indicates that in a confirmatory study we should have relatively high accuracy in discriminating between groups. This model is able to accurately distinguish Controls from RBDs, however due to an insufficient number of follow-up visits to date, the current study is unable to confirm if the RBDs tested will convert to PD. With such high error rates in diagnosing PD clinically, this model is a potentially beneficial and could serve as an easy screening tool to add to the suite of diagnostic tests and improve clinician’s ability to diagnose accurately.

<p>Experiment One: The Effect of Noise on Autonomic Arousal</p><p><br></p><p>In response to the growing demand for research that helps us understand the complex interactions between Autonomic Arousal (AA) on behavior and performance there is an increasing need for robust techniques to efficiently utilize stimuli, such as sound, to vary the level of AA within a study. The goal of this study was to look at the impact of several factors, including sound intensity, order of presentation, and direction of presentation on skin conductance level, a widely utilized technique for approximating levels of AA. To do this we had 34 young adults ages 18- 34 listen to a series of 2-minute blocks of a sound stimuli based off a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system (HVAC). Blocks included 5 single intensity conditions each block differing in 10 dBA steps ranging from 35-75 dBA. We presented blocks in both rising and falling level of intensity, with half the participants hearing them in a rising order first and half in a falling order first. The evidence found by this study suggests that increasing the sound level plays an important role in increasing AA and habituation is an extremely important factor that must be accounted for as it, in the case of typical young adults, quickly dampens the response to stimuli and subsequent stimuli. These findings suggest that researchers can best efficiently maximize the range of AA they can use while keeping their participants comfortable by starting out with the most intense stimuli and proceeding to the less intense stimuli, working with habitation instead of against it.</p><p> </p><p><br></p><p> Experiment Two: The Effect of Autonomic Arousal on Visual Attention</p><p><br></p><p>The goal of this study was to better understand how various levels of autonomic arousal impact different components of attentional control and if ASD-related traits indexed by Autism Quotient scores (AQ) might relate to alterations in this relationship. This study had 41 young adult participants (23 women, 17 men, 1 prefer not to say), ages ranging from 18 to 38 years old. Participants listened to varying levels of noise to induce changes in AA, which were recorded as changes in skin conductance level (SCL). To evaluate attentional control, participants preformed pro and anti-saccade visual gap–overlap paradigm tasks as measures of attentional control. The findings of this study suggest that increased levels of autonomic arousal are helpful for improving performance on anti-saccade tasks, which are heavily dependent on top-down attentional control. Additionally, increases in AQ scores were related to having less of a benefit from increasing levels of arousal on anti-saccade tasks. Additional interactions were also found and are discussed in this paper.</p>

« - Comment apprécions-nous la complexité du monde qui nous entoure ?- En bougeant nos yeux !- Pourquoi ?- Parce qu’une perception visuelle efficace (avec une acuité maximale !) nécessite de placer l’image des éléments pertinents du champ visuel au niveau d’une petite partie de notre rétine : la fovéa. » Les saccades oculaires sont les mouvements les plus rapides que peut produire notre organisme et sont malgré tout très précises. Le contrôle de ces mouvements représente un défi pour notre cerveau. En effet, ces saccades sont tellement rapides qu’aucune information visuelle ne peut modifier leur trajectoire en cours d’exécution. Mais alors, de quels moyens dispose notre cerveau pour maintenir ces performances tout au long de notre vie? En cas d’imprécision répétée, des mécanismes vont progressivement modifier l’amplitude de nos saccades oculaires afin d’en rétablir la précision. Cette adaptation saccadique repose sur des modifications centrales plastiques. Ce travail de thèse a comme vocation d’élucider les caractéristiques de l’adaptation saccadique chez l’homme. Des approches complémentaires ont permis d’étudier d’une part, l’adaptation des deux grandes catégories de saccades, réactives et volontaires, et d’autre part, l’adaptation en diminution et en augmentation d’amplitude. Nos données permettent de disséquer les mécanismes d’adaptation saccadique dans leur complexité et de mettre en évidence des structures neuronales indispensables à leur mise en place. Notre travail constitue également le support pour le développement de nouvelles procédures de rééducation, basées sur la plasticité oculomotrice. / “- How can we appreciate the complexity of the surrounding word? - By moving our eyes! - Why? - Because an efficient visual perception (with a maximal acuity!) necessitates placing the image of pertinent element from the visual scene at the level of a small part of our retina: the fovea.” Ocular saccades are the fastest movements our organism can produce and they are also highly precise. The control of these movements is a challenge for our brain. Indeed, these saccades are so fast that no visual information can be used during their execution to modify their trajectory. But then, what means does our brain have to maintain these performances all life long? In case of repeated inaccuracies, some mechanisms will progressively modify the amplitude of our ocular saccades in order to restore accuracy. This saccadic adaptation relies on central plastic modifications. The work of this doctorate has the vocation to elucidate the characteristics of saccadic adaptation in Human. Complimentary approaches allowed to study on one side, the adaptation of the two main saccade categories, reactive saccades and voluntary saccades, and on another side, the adaptation decreasing and increasing saccade amplitude. Our data dissects the complexity of mechanisms underlying saccadic adaptation and highlights the neural substrates necessary for these adaptive changes to take place. Our work constitutes also the basis for the development of new rehabilitation procedures, usingoculomotor plasticity.

Nos entrées sensorielles, comme nos mouvements, sont entachés d’incertitudes. Pourtant, notre système nerveux central semble être aussi précis que possible compte tenu de ces incertitudes: il les gère de manière optimale, par exemple en pondérant des informations sensorielles redondantes en fonction de leur fiabilité, ou en prenant en compte ses incertitudes motrices lors de la réalisation de mouvements. Si les modalités des combinaisons d’informations redondantes sont bien connues lors de tâches statiques, elles le sont moins en conditions dynamiques, lors de mouvements. La partie expérimentale de cette thèse a permis de confirmer l’existence de mécanismes d’estimation et de contrôle optimaux des mouvements chez l’humain. En effet, nous avons mis en évidence l’intégration optimale d’information visuelle lors de la réalisation de saccades à la lumière: lors de séquences de saccades, le système visuomoteur est capable d’utiliser l’information visuelle pour mettre à jour ses estimations internes de la position de l’œil. Une étude complémentaire des sources de variabilité des saccades suggère un rôle similaire pour la proprioception extra-oculaire. Par une troisième expérience, novatrice, nous avons montré que le toucher est pris en compte en temps réel lors de mouvements de la main en contact avec une surface. Nous avons également inféré une mesure de la variance de l'information tactile. Enfin, à partir des connaissances sur la représentation des variables sensorimotrices dans le système nerveux, nous avons construit plusieurs réseaux de neurones qui implémentent de manière proche de l'optimum statistique la planification et le contrôle de mouvements / Our sensory inputs, as well as our movements, are uncertain. Nevertheless, our central nervous systems appears to be as accurate as possible: these uncertainties are handled in an optimal fashion. For example, redundant sensory signals are weighted according to their accuracy, and motor uncertainties are taken in account when movements are made. The characteristics of the combination of redundant sensory signals are well known for static tasks. However, they are less known in dynamic conditions. The experimental part of this thesis allowed to confirm the use of statistically optimal sensorimotor processes during movements. We showed that visual information can be integrated during sequences of saccades, the oculomotor system being able to use visual information to update its internal estimate of eye position. A complementary study on the sources of variability for saccadic eye movements suggests a similar role for extra-ocular proprioception. In a third original experiment, we showed that tactile input is optimally taken in account for the on-line control of arm movements during which fingertips are in contact with a textured surface. Last, we built several neuronal networks models simulating optimal movement planning. These networks were based on current knowledge about probabilistic representations in the nervous system

Chaque saccade oculaire décale brusquement l'image projetée sur la rétine. Pourtant notre perception du monde reste stable et uniforme car le système visuel fait correspondre les informations avant et après chaque saccade. Pour établir cette correspondance, les mécanismes attentionnels seraient fondamentaux. Jusqu'à présent, ce lien transsaccadique a été mis en évidence par des études portant essentiellement sur le traitement des informations spatiales - à savoir, comment la position rétinienne d'un objet est corrigée à chaque saccade pour maintenir une perception stable du monde. Le traitement des traits visuels tels que la couleur ou la forme est encore mal compris et leur rôle dans l'impression de stabilité reste à établir. Est-ce que les traits et l'attention dédiée aux traits (feature-based attention), par définition indépendants de l'espace, participent aussi à la correspondance transsaccadique ? Pour analyser la relation entre le traitement des traits et celui des positions lors des saccades oculaires, cette thèse a suivi deux approches. La première s'est intéressée à la perception des attributs visuels, uniforme malgré l'hétérogénéité du système visuel. Les résultats ont montré que si la perception uniforme des attributs visuels s'appuie sur un apprentissage, les mécanismes sous-jacents ne seraient pas spécifiques aux mouvements oculaires. L'uniformité de la perception s'appuierait plutôt sur un mécanisme d'apprentissage associatif général. La seconde approche a cherché à mieux comprendre la nature de l'attention sélective transsaccadique. Les résultats ont montré que l'attention allouée à la cible d'une saccade ne contribue pas à aux mécanismes sélectifs guidés par les traits et engagés juste après l'exécution d'un mouvement oculaire. L'attention allouée à une cible saccadique et l'attention aux traits seraient alors indépendantes. Enfin, la dernière étude a montré que, lorsque l'attention sélective basée sur les traits est engagée pendant la préparation de la saccade en dehors de la cible saccadique, les traits sont maintenus pendant la saccade et affectent les processus sélectifs engagés juste après la saccade. L'attention transsaccadique ne serait alors pas de nature purement spatiale. L'ensemble de ces résultats suggère que les traits et l'attention aux traits joueraient un rôle dans la correspondance transsaccadique. / With each saccade, the image on the retina shifts abruptly but our perception of the surrounding world remains stable and uniform, because the visual system matches pre- and post-saccadic visual information. Attentional mechanisms could play a fundamental role in this process and numerous studies have examined the role of spatial attention. The processing of feature-based attention across saccades remains unclear and its role in matching pre- to post-saccadic visual information is not known. Do visual features and feature-based attention, assumed to enhance the feature-specific representations throughout the visual field, take part in the transsaccadic correspondence? To examine the relationship between feature and spatial processing, this thesis chose two approaches. The first one considered the uniform perception that we have for features despite the heterogeneity of the retina. Results show that, if the transsaccadic correspondence of visual features relies on learning, the underlying mechanisms would not be specific to eye movements. Visual constancy is more likely to arise from a general associative learning. The second approach examined the nature of transsaccadique attention. Results show that attention drawn to the saccade target did not contribute to selective mechanisms engaged just after an eye movement, suggesting a dissociation between feature-based attention and saccade programming. Finally, the last study show that feature-based selectivity is maintained across saccades to ensure spatiotopic correspondence, pointing out the potential role of feature-based attention in matching pre- to post-saccadic information.

The Remote Distractor Effect (RDE) is a robust phenomenon where a saccade to a lateralised target is delayed by the appearance of a distractor in the contralateral hemifield (Walker, Kentridge, & Findlay, 1995). The main aim of this thesis was to test whether the RDE generalises to response modalities other then the eyes. In Chapter 2, the RDE was tested on saccadic and simple manual keypress responses, and on a choice discrimination task requiring a covert shift of attention. The RDE was observed for saccades, but not simple manual responses, suggesting that spatially oriented responses may be necessary for the phenomenon. However, it was unclear whether distractor interference occurred in the covert task. Chapter 4 compared the effects of distractors between spatially equivalent tasks requiring saccadic and manual aiming responses respectively. Again, the RDE was observed for the eyes but not for the hands. This dissociation was also replicated in a more naturalistic task in which participants were free to move their eyes during manual aiming. In order to examine the time-course of distractor effects for the eyes and the hands, a third experiment investigated distractor effects across a wider range of target-distractor delays, finding no RDE for manual aiming responses at distractor delays of 0, 100, or 150 ms. The failure of the RDE to generalise to manual aiming suggests that target selection mechanisms are not shared between hand and eye movements. Chapter 5 further investigated the role of distractors during covert discrimination. The first experiment showed that distractor appearance did not interfere with discrimination performance. A second experiment, in which participants were also asked to saccade toward the target, confirmed the lack of RDE for covert discrimination while saccades were slower in distractor trials. The dissociation between covert and overt orienting suggests important differences between shifts of covert attention and preparation of eye movements. Finally, Chapter 6 investigated the mechanism driving the RDE. In particular it was assessed whether saccadic inhibition (Reingold & Stampe, 2002) is responsible for the increase in saccadic latency induced by remote distractors. Examination of the distributions of saccadic latencies at different distractor delays showed that each distractor produced a discrete dip in saccadic frequency, time-locked to distractor onset, conforming closely to the character of saccadic inhibition. It is concluded that saccadic inhibition underlies the remote distractor effect.

Human vision is remarkable. By limiting the main concentration of high-acuity photoreceptors to the eye's central fovea region, we efficiently view the world by redirecting the fovea between points of interest using eye movements called <em>saccades</em>. <br /><br /> Part I describes a saccadic vision system prototype design. The dual-resolution saccadic camera detects objects of interest in a scene by processing low-resolution image information; it then revisits salient regions in high-resolution. The end product is a dual-resolution image in which background information is displayed in low-resolution, and salient areas are captured in high-acuity. This lends to a resource-efficient active vision system. <br /><br />Part II describes CMOS image sensor designs for active vision. Specifically, this discussion focuses on methods to determine regions of interest and achieve high dynamic range on the sensor.

Balancing subject learning and decoder adaptation is central to increasing brain machine interface (BMI) performance. We addressed these complementary aspects in two studies: (1) a learning study, in which mice modulated “beta” band activity to control a 1D auditory cursor, and (2) an adaptive decoding study, in which a simple recurrent artificial neural network (RNN) decoded intended saccade targets of monkeys. In the learning study, three mice successfully increased beta band power following trial initiations, and specifically increased beta burst durations from 157 ms to 182 ms, likely contributing to performance. Though the task did not explicitly require specific movements, all three mice appeared to modulate beta activity via active motor control and had consistent vibrissal motor cortex multiunit activity and local field potential relationships with contralateral whisker pad electromyograms. The increased burst durations may therefore by a direct result of increased motor activity. These findings suggest that only a subset of beta rhythm phenomenology can be volitionally modulated (e.g. the tonic “hold” beta), therefore limiting the possible set of successful beta neuromodulation strategies. In the adaptive decoding study, RNNs decoded delay period activity in oculomotor and working memory regions while monkeys performed a delayed saccade task. Adaptive decoding sessions began with brain-controlled trials using pre-trained RNN models, in contrast to static decoding sessions in which 300-500 initial eye-controlled training trials were performed. Closed loop RNN decoding performance was lower than predicted by offline simulations. More consistent delay period activity and saccade paths across trials were associated with higher decoding performance. Despite the advantage of consistency, one monkey’s delay period activity patterns changed over the first week of adaptive decoding, and the other monkey’s saccades were more erratic during adaptive decoding than during static decoding sessions. It is possible that the altered session paradigm eliminating eye-controlled training trials led to either frustration or exploratory learning, causing the neural and behavioral changes. Considering neural control and decoder adaptation of BMIs in these studies, future work should improve the “two-learner” subject-decoder system by better modeling the interaction between underlying brain states (and possibly their modulation) and the neural signatures representing desired outcomes.

Dans le contexte de l'énaction et dans une approche globale de la perception, nous nous sommes intéressés à étudier calcul neuronal permettant de comprendre les relations entre les structures dans le cerveau et leurs fonctions. Nous avons d'abord examiné les problèmes calculatoires liés à la discrétisation des équations différentielles qui régissent les systèmes étudiés et aux schémas d'évaluation synchrones et asynchrones. Nous nous sommes, ensuite, intéressés à un niveau fonctionnel élémentaire: la transformation de représentations sensorielles spatiales en actes moteurs temporels dans le cadre du système visuo-moteur. Nous avons proposé un modèle minimaliste d'encodage automatique des cibles visuelles de saccades qui se concentre sur le le flux visuel de la rétine vers le colliculus supérieur. Ce modèle, basé sur sur des règles locales simples au sein d'une population homogène, permet de reproduire et d'expliquer plusieurs résultats d'expériences biologiques ce qui en fait un modèle de base efficace et robuste. Enfin, nous avons abordé un niveau fonctionnel plus global en proposant un modèle de la boucle motrice des ganglions de la base permettant d'intégrer des flux sensoriels, moteurs et motivationnels en vue d'une décision globale reposant sur des évaluations locales. Ce modèle met en exergue un processus adaptatif de sélection de l'action et d'encodage de contexte via des mécanismes originaux lui permettant en particulier de constituer la brique de base pour les autres boucles cortico-basales. Les deux modèles présentent des dynamiques intéressantes à étudier que ce soit d'un point de vue biologique ou d'un point de vue informatique computationnel / Within the context of enaction and a global approach to perception, we focused on the characteristics of neural computation necessary to understand the relationship between structures in the brain and their functions. We first considered computational problems related to the discretization of differential equations that govern the studied systems and the synchronous and asynchronous evaluation schemes. Then, we investigated a basic functional level : the transformation of spatial sensory representations into temporal motor actions within the visual-motor system. We focused on the visual flow from the retina to the superior colliculus to propose a minimalist model of automatic encoding of saccades to visual targets. This model, based on simple local rules (CNFT and logarithmic projection) in a homogeneous population and using a sequential processing, reproduces and explains several results of biological experiments. It is then considered as a robust and efficient basic model. Finally, we investigated a more general functional level by proposing a computational model of the basal ganglia motor loop. This model integrates sensory, motor and motivational flows to perform a global decision based on local assessments. We implemented an adaptive process for action selection and context encoding through an innovative mechanism that allows to form the basic circuit for other cortico-basal loops. This mechanism allows to create internal representations according to the enactive approach that opposes the computer metaphor of the brain. Both models have interesting dynamics to study from whether a biological point of view or a computational numerical one