Über 60 % der Aufträge der Bauindustrie werden heute im Bestand umgesetzt. Bei Umbauten oder Aufstockungen stellt sich für den Tragwerksplaner dabei wiederkehrend die Frage nach der Tragsicherheit der Baukonstruktionen für die aktuellen Lastansätze. Besondere Herausforderungen sind historische Bauwerke, die auf der Grundlage traditioneller, baumeisterlicher Erfahrungen mit zeitgenössisch verfügbaren Materialien errichtet worden sind. Sie lassen sich mangels zuverlässiger Daten über die Baustoffe und den Lastabtrag nur selten rechnerisch zutreffend beurteilen. Dieser Beitrag soll zurückblicken auf die vergangenen 15 Jahre, in denen wir über 180 Decken in fast 60 Bauwerken durch Belastungsversuche getestet haben. Dabei möchten wir von unseren Erfahrungen berichten, Besonderheiten herausheben und grundsätzlich das Potential sowie die Grenzen der experimentellen Tragsicherheitsanalyse bewerten.

<p>Supercritical Water-cooled Reactor (SCWR) is a Generation-IV nuclear reactor design that operates on a direct energy conversion cycle above the thermodynamic critical point of water (374⁰C and 22.1 MPa), and offers higher thermal efficiency and considerable design simplification. As an essential step in the design of SCWR safety systems, the accident behaviour of the reactor is evaluated to ensure that the safety systems can achieve safe shutdown for all the design basis accidents. Unfortunately, the computational tools and computer codes that are currently employed for safety analysis have little application in the supercritical region, and faces significant challenges in simulating the transitions from subcritical to supercritical conditions.</p> <p>This thesis examines the predictive capabilities of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code STAR-CCM+ by evaluating critical flow (or choked flow) due to accidental release of coolant from supercritical fluid systems. The biggest challenge of this research is that the current version of STAR-CCM+ does not support supercritical simulations because the steam tables included in the package are only limited to the subcritical subset of the thermodynamic fluid properties.</p> <p>The research was carried out in two stages. In the first stage, the CFD code STAR-CCM+ was customized to simulate supercritical conditions by, (i) Generating updated steam tables to include subcritical and supercritical fluid properties and using more pressure and temperature points in the pseudo critical region (22 – 25 MPa, 645 -660 K) to handle the rapid changes in the fluid properties, and (ii) Implementing a multi-dimensional steam table interpolation scheme to access the fluid property data at any thermodynamic state during the simulation. In the second stage, the customized CFD code was extensively evaluated by simulating several accidental release scenarios from supercritical conditions using rounded-edge and sharp-edge nozzles and the model results were validated with experimental data. To overcome the solution stability (or convergence) issues encountered during the supercritical simulations, a fine tuning procedure was proposed that guaranteed convergence for all the case studies considered in this thesis.</p> <p>The simulation results revealed that the CFD model produced results that were in good agreement with experimental data and only about 10% prediction error was noticed for most cases considered in the thesis. Considering the sensitivity of the CFD model for upstream temperatures and pressures, these results appear to be quite reasonable. From the computational experience gained in this research , we believe that the CFD code STAR-CCM+ is a very useful tool to perform thermal hydraulic simulations for supercritical systems. However, an appropriate customization and extensive validation of the code is required before it can be exclusively used for safety analysis.</p> / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Yes / Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) is a well-established and well-understood technique, widely used for dependability evaluation of a wide range of systems. Although many extensions of fault trees have been proposed, they suffer from a variety of shortcomings. In particular, even where software tool support exists, these analyses require a lot of manual effort. Over the past two decades, research has focused on simplifying dependability analysis by looking at how we can synthesise dependability information from system models automatically. This has led to the field of model-based dependability analysis (MBDA). Different tools and techniques have been developed as part of MBDA to automate the generation of dependability analysis artefacts such as fault trees. Firstly, this paper reviews the standard fault tree with its limitations. Secondly, different extensions of standard fault trees are reviewed. Thirdly, this paper reviews a number of prominent MBDA techniques where fault trees are used as a means for system dependability analysis and provides an insight into their working mechanism, applicability, strengths and challenges. Finally, the future outlook for MBDA is outlined, which includes the prospect of developing expert and intelligent systems for dependability analysis of complex open systems under the conditions of uncertainty.

L'aboutissement aux Commandes de Vol Électriques (CDVE) des avions civils actuels s'est fait par étapes, après une longue maturation des différentes technologies mises en place. La prochaine étape est l'utilisation de communications intégralement numériques et d'actionneurs intelligents. Cette thèse propose de nouvelles architectures, en rupture avec l'état de l'art, avec de nouvelles répartitions des fonctions intelligentes entre l'avionique centrale (calculateurs de commandes de vols) et l'avionique déportée (électroniques locales des actionneurs) dont l'avantage est d'exiger moins de ressources par rapport aux architectures conventionnelles tout en satisfaisant les mêmes exigences de sécurité et de disponibilité ainsi que les exigences croissantes en fiabilité opérationnelle de la part des compagnies aériennes. La sûreté de fonctionnement et la robustesse des nouvelles architectures proposées ont été validées respectivement sous OCAS/Altarica et Matlab/Simulink. / The current civil aircraft's electrical flight control has been changed to take benefit of technical improvements. New technologies, when mature, can be incorporated in aircrafts. Evolutions are considered towards a digital communication and intelligent actuators. This thesis is aiming at proposing alternative architectures with distribution of system functionality between flight control computers and actuators with less hardware and software resources. New architectures must meet the same safety and availability requirements with additional operational reliability (required by airlines). Dependability and robustness of new architectures have been validated trough respectively OCAS / AltaRica and Matlab / Simulink

Software Product Line Engineering (SPLE) has been proven to reduce development and maintenance costs, improving the time-to-market, and increasing the quality of product variants developed from a product family via systematic reuse of its core assets. SPLE has been successfully used in the development of safety-critical systems, especially in automotive and aerospace domains. Safety-critical systems have to be developed according to safety standards, which demands safety analysis, Fault Tree Analysis (FTA), and assurance cases safety engineering artefacts. However, performing safety analysis, FTA, and assurance case construction activities from scratch and manually for each product variant is time-consuming and error-prone, whereas variability in safety engineering artefacts can be automatically managed with the support of variant management techniques. As safety is context-dependent, context and design variation directly impact in the safety properties changing hazards, their causes, the risks posed by these hazards to system safety, risk mitigation measures, and FTA results. Therefore, managing variability in safety artefacts from different levels of abstraction increases the complexity of the variability model, even with the support of variant management techniques. To achieve an effective balance between benefits and complexity in adopting an SPLE approach for safety-critical systems it is necessary to distinguish between reusable safety artefacts, whose variability should be managed, and those that should be generated from the reused safety artefacts. On the other hand, both industry and safety standards have recognized the use of model-based techniques to support safety analysis and assurance cases. Compositional safety analysis, design optimization, and model-based assurance cases are examples of techniques that have been used to support the generation of safety artefacts required to achieve safety certification. This thesis aims to propose a model-based approach that integrates model-based development, compositional safety analysis, and variant management techniques to support the systematic reuse and generation of safety artefacts in safety-critical software product line engineering. The approach contributes to reduce the effort and costs of performing safety analysis and assessment for a particular product variant, since such analysis is performed from the reused safety artefacts. Thus, variant-specific fault trees, Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA), and assurance case artefacts required to achieve safety certification can be automatically generated with the support the model-based safety analysis and assurance case construction techniques. / Engenharia de Linha de Produtos de Software (ELPS) contribui para a redução dos custos de desenvolvimento e de manutenção, a melhoria do time-to-market, e o aumento da qualidade de produtos desenvolvidos a partir de uma família de produtos por meio do reuso sistemático dos ativos principais da linha de produtos. A ELPS vem sendo utilizada com sucesso no desenvolvimento de sistemas embarcados críticos, especificamente nos domínios de sistemas automotivos e aeroespaciais. Sistemas embarcados críticos devem ser desenvolvidos de acordo com os requisitos definidos em padrões de segurança, que demandam a produção de artefatos de análise de segurança, árvores de falhas e casos de segurança. Entretanto, a realização de atividades de análise de segurança, análise de árvores de falhas e construção de casos de segurança de forma manual para cada produto de uma linha de produtos é uma tarefa demorada e propensa a erros. O gerenciamento de variabilidade em artefatos de análise de segurança pode ser automatizado com o apoio de técnicas de gerenciamento de variabilidades. Em virtude de safety ser uma propriedade dependente de contexto, a variabilidade no projeto e contexto inerente uma linha de produtos software impacta na definição de propriedades de segurança do sistema, modificando as ameaças à segurança do sistema, suas causas e riscos, medidas de mitigação aplicáveis, e resultados de análise de árvore de falhas. Dessa forma, gerenciar variabilidades em artefatos relacionados à safety em diferentes níveis de abstração aumenta a complexidade do modelo de variabilidade mesmo com o apoio de técnicas de gerenciamento de variabilidades. Para alcançar o equilíbrio eficaz entre os benefícios e a complexidade da adoção de uma abordagem de ELPS para o desenvolvimento de sistemas embarcados críticos é necessário fazer a distinção entre artefatos de safety reusáveis, em que a variabilidade deve ser gerenciada, e artefatos de safety que devem ser gerados a partir de artefatos reusáveis. Por outro lado, tanto a indústria quanto os padrões de segurança têm reconhecido o uso de técnicas dirigidas a modelos para apoiar a análise segurança e a construção de casos de segurança. Técnicas de análise de segurança composicional e otimização de projeto, e de construção de casos de segurança dirigido a modelos vêm sendo utilizadas para apoiar a geração de artefatos de safety requeridos para certificação. O objetivo desta tese é a proposta de uma abordagem dirigida a modelos que integra técnicas de desenvolvimento dirigido a modelos, análise de segurança composicional e otimização de projeto, e construção de casos de segurança dirigido a modelos para apoiar o reuso sistemático e a geração de artefatos de safety em engenharia de linhas de produtos de sistemas embarcados críticos. A abordagem proposta reduz o esforço e os custos de análise e avaliação de segurança para produtos de uma linha de produtos, uma vez que tal análise é realizada a partir de artefatos de safety reusados. Assim, artefatos como análises de árvores de falhas e de modos de falha e efeitos, e casos de segurança requeridos para certificação podem ser gerados automaticamente com o apoio de técnicas dirigidas a modelos.

Process plants that produce chemical products through pre-designed processes are fundamental in the Chemical Engineering industry. The safety of hazardous processing plants is of paramount importance as an accident could cause major damage to property and/or injury to people. HAZID is a computer system that helps designers and operators of process plants to identify potential design and operation problems given a process plant design. However, there are issues that need to be addressed before such a system will be accepted for common use. This research project considers how to improve the usability and acceptability of such a system by developing tools to test the developed models in order for the users to gain confidence in HAZID s output as HAZID is a model based system with a library of equipment models. The research also investigates the development of computer-aided safety applications and how they can be integrated together to extend HAZID to support different kinds of safety-related reasoning tasks. Three computer-aided tools and one reasoning system have been developed from this project. The first is called Model Test Bed, which is to test the correctness of models that have been built. The second is called Safe Isolation Tool, which is to define isolation boundary and identify potential hazards for isolation work. The third is an Instrument Checker, which lists all the instruments and their connections with process items in a process plant for the engineers to consider whether the instrument and its loop provide safeguards to the equipment during the hazard identification procedure. The fourth is a cause-effect analysis system that can automatically generate cause-effect tables for the control engineers to consider the safety design of the control of a plant as the table shows process events and corresponding process responses designed by the control engineer. The thesis provides a full description of the above four tools and how they are integrated into the HAZID system to perform control safety analysis and hazard identification in process plants.

O presente estudo foi realizado para verificar a possibilidade de redução do núcleo do reator IEA-R1 do IPEN/CNEN-SP. Cálculos neutrônicos foram desenvolvidos para um conjunto de novas configurações para que, a posteriori, a análise termo-hidráulica e de segurança pudessem ser realizadas. As novas configurações analisadas são menores por diversos motivos, como obter uma melhor utilização do combustível, melhor distribuição dos fluxos de nêutrons, dentre outros. Para que se possa atingir tais configurações, a densidade de Urânio no combustível deve ser aumentada. Neste estudo, combustíveis de U3Si2-Al com 4,8gU/cm3 foram testados e novos núcleos para o reator IEA-R1 foram propostos e discutidos. A análise neutrônica não impõe restrições aos núcleos estudados. A análise termohidráulica mostrou que as margens de segurança e os perfis de temperatura ao longo das placas combustíveis não excedem os limites de projeto. Os coeficientes de temperatura obtidos para os novos núcleos, no caso isotérmico, são todos negativos, conforme desejado. A queima mostrou que núcleos supercompactos não apresentam excesso de reatividade suficiente para o funcionamento dos mesmo, ao se utilizar combustíveis com 4,8gU/cm3. Um APR (Acidente de Perda de Refrigerante) foi simulado para os núcleos remanescentes. A ruptura da fronteira do primário se mostrou o acidente mais crítico, devido ao curto tempo para o esvaziamento completo da piscina do reator. As temperaturas atingidas após o descobrimento foram calculadas e não excedem aquelas cujos valores propiciam empolamento nas placas combustíveis (475 °! a 550 °!), uma vez que se obedeça os tempos de esvaziamento seguro da piscina para as novas configurações. / This study was performed considering prospective candidates for the IPEN/CNEN-SP IEA-R1 research reactor core. Some neutronic calculations were developed for a set of new core configurations to push forward the thermal-hydraulic and safety analysis. The new core configurations will be smaller for several reasons (e.g., better fuel utilization, neutron fluxes and so on). To achieve such smaller arrangements, the U-fuel density has to be increased. In the current study, configurations with 4.8gU/cm3 U3Si2- Al fuels were tested using the software MCNP and a set of new core configurations for the IPEN/CNEN-SP IEA-R1 research reactor has been presented and discussed. The Neutronic analysis imposes no restrictions on the new cores. The Thermal- Hydraulic (TH) analysis showed that the safety margins and the temperature profile through the fuel plate dont exceed the design limits. The isothermal temperature coefficients were calculated being all negative, as desired. The burnup concludes that super compact cores dont have enough excess reactivity to keep the reactor working with 4.8gU/cm3 U3Si2-Al fuels. A LOCA (Loss of Cooling Accident) was simulated for the remaining cores. The border rupture of the primary system was the most critical accident, due to the short time for the complete emptying of the reactor pool. The temperatures reached after this accident were calculated and dont exceed the fuel plates limits (475 °C - 550 °C), once the time for safe emptying are taken into account for the IEA-R1 pool.

The present study focused on evaluating some crash prediction models for two lane highways on Brazilian conditions. Also, the transferability of models was considered, specifically by means of a comparison between Brazil, HSM and Florida. The analysis of two lane highways crash prediction models was promising when the road characteristics were well known and there was not much difference from base conditions. This conclusion was attained regarding the comparison of results for all segments, non-curved segments and curved segments, confirming that a transferred model can be used with caution. In addition, two novel models for Brazilian two-lane highways segments were estimated. The model developed showed better results for non-curved segments in the calibration/validation sample. Thus, for a general analysis purpose of non-curved segments this model is recommended. Finally, there are many factors that could not be measured by these models and reflects road safety various condition. Even so, the study of crash predict models in Brazilian context could provide a better start point in safety road analysis. / O foco desta pesquisa foi avaliar a aplicação de alguns modelos de previsão de acidentes em rodovias de pista simples de três estados brasileiros. Ainda, a transferabilidade destes modelos foi abordada, especificamente por meio de uma comparação entre características do Brasil, Florida e aquelas recomendadas pelo Highway Safety Manual. O uso dos distintos modelos se mostrou promissor para situações nas quais as características da via se mantiveram semelhantes às condições para as quais os modelos foram desenvolvidos. A avaliação foi empreendida para todos os segmentos homogêneos, separados posteriormente segundo a existência de curvas horizontais. Adicionalmente, dois novos modelos foram equacionados para a amostra brasileira. O modelo de previsão de acidentes desenvolvido apresentou melhores medidas de desempenho para segmentos sem curvas horizontais, sendo recomendável para previsão de acidentes em análises preliminares. Por fim, foi constatado que outros fatores não contemplados pelos modelos podem ter impactado as condições de segurança dos locais estudados. Ainda assim, essa pesquisa representa no contexto do Brasil um ponto de partida em análises relacionadas à segurança de rodovias de pista simples.

Disturbances in the supply of electric power can have serious implications for everyday life as well as for national (homeland) security. A power outage can be initiated by natural disasters, adverse weather, technical failures, human errors, sabotage, terrorism, and acts of war. The vulnerability of a system is described as a sensitivity to threats and hazards, and is measured by P (Q(t) &gt; q), i.e. the probability of at least one disturbance with negative societal consequences Q larger than some critical value q, during a given period of time (0,t]. The aim of the thesis is to present methods for quantitative vulnerability analysis of electric power delivery networks to enable effective strategies for prevention, mitigation, response, and recovery to be developed. Paper I provides a framework for vulnerability assessment of infrastructure systems. The paper discusses concepts and perspectives for developing a methodology for vulnerability analysis, and gives examples related to power systems. Paper II analyzes the vulnerability of power delivery systems by means of statistical analysis of Swedish disturbance data. It is demonstrated that the size of large disturbances follows a power law, and that the occurrence of disturbances can be modeled as a Poisson process. Paper III models electric power delivery systems as graphs. Statistical measures for characterizing the structure of two empirical transmission systems are calculated, and a structural vulnerability analysis is performed, i.e. a study of the connectivity of the graph when vertices and edges are disabled. Paper IV discusses the origin of power laws in complex systems in terms of their structure and the dynamics of disturbance propagation. A branching process is used to model the structure of a power distribution system, and it is shown that the disturbance size in this analytical network model follows a power law. Paper V shows how the interaction between an antagonist and the defender of a power system can be modeled as a game. A numerical example is presented, and it is studied if there exists a dominant defense strategy, and if there is an optimal allocation of resources between protection of components, and recovery. / QC 20100831

This thesis theoretically and experimentally investigates different aspects of the application of CO2 in supermarket refrigeration. Theoretical analysis has been performed using computer simulation models developed to simulate CO2 indirect, NH3/CO2 cascade, CO2 trans-critical and direct expansion (DX) R404A systems. The models supported the selection of the CO2 system solutions to be tested experimentally and facilitated the design of NH3/CO2 cascade and trans-critical systems test rigs. Performance evaluation and systems’ optimizations have also been carried out. In order to verify the findings of the theoretical analysis an experimental evaluation has been performed whereby a scaled-down medium size supermarket has been built in a laboratory environment. NH3/CO2 cascade and trans-critical systems have been tested and compared to a conventional R404A system installed in the same laboratory environment. Experimental findings have been compared to the computer simulation models. In supermarket refrigeration applications, safety is a major concern because of the large number of people that might be affected in the event of leakage. Therefore, a computer simulation model has been developed to perform calculations of the resulting concentration levels arising from different scenarios for leakage accidents in the supermarket. The model has been used to validate some of the risks associated with using CO2 in the application of supermarket refrigeration. Results of the experiments and the computer simulation models showed good agreement and suggest that the NH3/CO2 cascade system is a more efficient solution than the analyzed conventional ones for supermarket refrigeration. On the other hand, CO2 trans-critical solutions have efficiencies comparable to the conventional systems analyzed, with potential for improvements in the trans-critical systems. From a safety point of view, the analysis of the calculations’ results clearly shows that using CO2 in supermarket refrigeration does not create exceptional health risks for customers and workers in the shopping area. Studies conducted in this thesis prove that the CO2 systems investigated are efficient solutions for supermarket refrigeration. / QC 20100909