Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Technology: Horticulture in the Faculty of Applied Sciences at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology 2013 / This study evaluated the effects of different pH levels and supplementary phosphorous concentrations on Salvia chamelaeagnea grown in hydroponics. The treatments consisted of 12 treatments of 4 differing nutrient solutions offering: low concentration of supplementary P (control), balanced concentration of supplementary P, moderate concentration of supplementary P and a high concentration of supplementary P at 3 differing pH levels. Each treatment was replicated 10 times. The objectives of this study were to asses the effect of supplementary phosphorous concentrations and 3 different pH levels on the growth, development and chlorophyll responses of Salvia chamelaeagnea grown hydroponically. Growth and development was recorded by measuring weekly heights, numbers of basal shoots, stem diameters and the number of branches, while root length and wet and dry weights of roots and shoots were measured post harvest. Chlorophyll responses were recorded by measuring weekly SPAD-502 measurements while post harvest DMSO analysis of chlorophyll A, B and total chlorophyll were recorded along with nutrient uptake levels of N, P,K, Ca, Mg, Na, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn and B in the plant leaves. This study has shown that the use of a hydroponic nutrient system offering a moderate concentration of supplementary P at a pH level of 4 significantly influences the growth and development of Salvia chamelaeagnea grown in hydroponics. Plants treated with a pH level of 4 generally produced higher wet and dry shoot weights, root lengths, stem diameters, basal shoot numbers, branch numbers, and plant heights than that of the control and all treatments delivering nutrients at a pH level of 6 and 8. Although no one treatment offering supplementary P produced consistently high results, in most cases all the plants receiving supplementary P at a pH level of 4 outperformed the pH 6 and pH 8 treatments receiving the same amount of supplementary P. This indicates that at a pH level of 4 the mineral nutrient availability of a nutrient solution is at an adequate level for the growth and development of Salvia chamelaeagnea. Furthering studies into the effects of arbuscular mycorrhiza on the uptake of mineral nutrients, root morphology and growth and development are recommended.

Six new compounds were isolated from the aerial and root parts of S. viridis L. cv. Blue Jeans. Two new triterpenoids, lup-20(29)-ene-2α-acetate-3β-ol, and lup-20(29)-ene-2α-ol-3β-acetate were found in the aerial part together with lup-20(29)-ene-2α-3β-diol, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, β-sitosterol and β-sitosterol glucoside. Three new diterpenoids, 1-oxomicrostegiol, viroxocane, viridoquinone, together with five known diterpenoids, ferruginol, salvinolonyl 12-methyl ether, microstegiol, 7α-acetoxy-14-hydroxy-8,13-abietadiene-11,12-dione and 7α,14-dihydroxy-8,13-abietadiene-11,12-dione were found in roots. 1-Docosyl ferulate, 2'',3''-di-O-acetyl-martynoside and a mixture of 2-(4'-alkoxy-phenyl) ethyl alkanoates were also isolated from roots. Seven caffeic acid derivatives, five flavonoid glycosides, and salidroside were found in the crude aerial fraction. Four caffeic acid derivatives were known phenylpropanoids, i.e. trans-, cis-verbascoside, leucosceptoside A and martynoside, which are now reported in the genus Salvia for the first time. The others were caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid and 6-O-caffeoyl-glucose. A new flavonoid glycoside, luteolin-7-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-galactopyranoside was also identified in the aerial part with four known flavone glycosides: luteolin-7-O-β-glucopyranoside, luteolin-7-O-β-galactopyranoside, luteolin-7-O-rutinoside and apigenin-7-O-β-glucopyranoside. Verbascoside (acteoside), which is a major component in this plant, showed a significant protective effect against UVA induced damage in a human skin fibroblast model in vitro. It exhibited 1.4 fold protective effect against UVA induced necrosis with 1.4 fold higher in cell survival. 50 μM Verbascoside showed the same protective effect as 100 μM DFO at a high intensity UVA dose (500 kJ/m2). Further determination of organelle specific protection suggested a mechanism of action in mitochondria. Two terpenoids, lup-20(29)-ene-2α-acetate-3β-ol and 7α,14-dihydroxy-8,13-abieta-diene-11,12-dione, exhibited antibacterial activity against Enterococcus faecalis with MIC 50 μM. Microstegiol was also active against Staphylococcus aureus with MIC 50 μM. Ursolic acid, oleanolic acid and ferruginol showed appreciable antibacterial activity against three Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, and Bacillus cereus with MIC 12.5-50 μM. The other diterpenoids were active against all three Gram-positive bacteria with MIC 100-200 μM. None of crude fractions was active against three Gram-negative bacteria, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris, and Escherichia coli.

Salvia hispanica L. (commonly known as chia) is gaining popularity worldwide and specially in US as a healthy oil and food supplement for human and animal consumption due to its favorable oil composition, and high protein, fiber, and antioxidant contents. Despite these benefits and its growing public demand, very limited gene sequence information is currently available in public databases. In this project, we generated 90 million high quality 150 bp paired-end sequences from the chia leaf and root tissues. The sequences were de novo assembled into 103,367 contigs with average length of 1,445 bp. The resulted assembly represented 92.2% transcriptome completeness. Around 69% of the assembled contigs were annotated against the uniprot database and represented a diverse array of functional and biological categories. A total of 14,267 contigs showed significant expression difference between the leaf and root tissues, with 6,151 and 8,116 contigs upregulated in the leaf and root, respectively. The sequence data generated in this project will provide valuable resources for future functional genomic research in chia. With the availability of transcriptome sequences, it would be possible to identify genes involved in the important metabolic pathways that give chia its unique nutritional and medicinal properties. Finally, the generated data will contribute to the genetic improvement efforts of chia to better serve the public demand.

Salvia miltiorrhiza (SM) preconditioning was reported to be helpful in the early recovery of gastrointestinal motility in the intestinal congestion of rats with hepatic ischemia reperfusion. The aim of this study was to determine whether SM stimulates contraction of isolated terminal ileum of Sprague-Dawley rat ex vitro and the mechanisms which regulates that. The roots of SM were extracted by ethanol. One of the indicative marker of SM, Tanshinone IIA, was identified and quantified with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the results showed that Tanshinone IIA was 1190 £gg/ml in SM extract. The effects of contractile activity of SM extract at various cumulative dosages on the rat isolated terminal ileum were studied in organ bath. The area under curve above the baseline of contractile graphy of SM extract on isolated terminal ileum was recorded. In order to explore the contractile mechanism of SM extract on isolated terminal ileum, the individual pretreatment or use of atropine (a muscarinic receptor antagonist), tetrodotoxin (a sodium channel blocker), nifedipine (a calcium channel blocker), Ca2+ free Kreb¡¦s solution with EGTA, or trifluoperazine (a calmodulin blocker) was given and then cumulative dosages (40 £gL, 100 £gL, 180 £gL, 280 £gL) of SM extract were added. In addition, we used Fura-2 pentakis acetoxymethyl ester to detect the change of intracellular calcium concentration of intestinal epithelial cell-6 (IEC-6) induced in 1/1000-time or 1/10000-time dilution of SM extract. The result indicated SM extract significantly simulated the contraction of isolated terminal ileum in a dose-dependent manner. The individual addition or use of atropine, tetrodotoxin, nifedipine, or Ca2+ free Kreb¡¦s solution with EGTA all could not down-regulate significantly the contraction of SM extract on isolated terminal ileum. Trifluoperazine significantly down-regulated the contraction of SM extract on isolated terminal ileum. In addiation, SM extract was able to increase cytosolic calcium concentration of IEC-6 cells. In conclusion, the mechanisms of contraction of SM extract on isolated terminal ileum of rat were involved in calmodulin/Ca2+ associated contraction pathway.

The genus Salvia L. is significantly important with regard to both its worldwide distribution and usage areas including food, medical and perfumary industries. In this current study, it is targeted to address the chromosome numbers and karyomorphology of the ten species and one variety of the genus Salvia. All of the eleven taxa examined in this study are economically significant and nine of these are endemic to Turkey. To define the chromosome numbers and karyomorphology of these eleven taxa somatic chromosomes of the each were examined. Mitotic metaphase chromosomes were obtained from root meristems of germinating seeds, which were pre-treated in &amp / #945 / -bromonaphtalene at 4&ordm / C for 16 h, then fixed in Carnoy solution (3 parts of ethanol: 1 parts of glacial acetic acid) at 4&ordm / C for 24h and stored in 70 % ethanol. Fixed root tips were stained in 2 % aceto-orcein and squashed in a drop of 45 % acetic acid. Long arm, short arm, total length of the each chromosomes were measured / relative length, arm ratio, centromeric index of the each chromosome were calculated. Karyogram and haploid idiograms were drawn by computer-aided analysis programme (Bs200pro). A cluster analysis of the karyotype data was carried out to examine karyotype similarity among taxa. Somatic chromosome numbers have been counted as 2n=2x=14 for the endemic taxa S. divaricata Montbret &amp / Aucher, S. euphratica Montbret &amp / Aucher ex Bentham (var. leiocalycina (Rech. fil.) Hedge) and S. recognita Fisch. &amp / Mey. / 2n=2x=14-1B for Salvia rosifolia Sm. / 2n=20 for S. longipedicellata Hedge, S. vermifolia Hedge &amp / Hub.-Mor. and S. yosgadensis Freyn &amp / Bornm. / 2n=2x=22 for S. aethiopis L., S. cilicica Boiss. &amp / Kotschy, S. hypargeia Fisch. &amp / Mey. and 2n=2x=32 for S. napifolia Jacq. respectively. In general, the chromosomes are short with median and submedian centromeres. The current study is essential for being the first report about chromosome numbers and karyomorphology of the six endemic taxa, namely S. divaricata, S. euphratica var. leiocalycina, S. longipedicellata, S. rosifolia, S. vermifolia and S. yosgadensis. Moreover, in spite of the chromosome numbers of S. aethiopis, S. cilicica, S. hypargeia and S. recognita are known, this research is the first study for their karyomorphologies.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE GENUS SALVIA L. (LABIATAE) IN CENTRAL ANATOLIA, TURKEY SAFI BAGHERPOUR Ph.D., Department of Biological Sciences Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Musa Dogan June 2010, 203 pages This research study is a revision of the genus Salvia (Labiatae) in Central Anatolia. The author has carried out extensive research studies conducted in a 3 year period starting from June 2005 by collecting specimens from all the localities in Central Anatolia, Turkey. Specimens collected from Turkey by the other researchers and kept either in Turkey or abroad were also examined. The samples were studied using their root, stem and leaf morphology including essential characteristics of flowers. Using this information dendograms were obtained and taxa cut off lines were drawn. The cross sectional preparations of stem and leaf were observed for taxonomical evaluation. Salvia taxa leaf surface, flower organs and seed surface were studied for understanding the diagnostic value of their micro morphological characteristics. Anatomical sections of the specimens were analyzed under light microscope and the data was used for further taxa separations. The Salvia species were further investigated for their pollen characteristics such as surface view and dimensions. Numeric taxonomic methods were used for constructing a natural infrageneric grouping in the genus as far as the species allows. Using software and computer grouping each sample was ranked and placed into specific taxa. First the samples were identified by using the species key given in Turkish Flora. According to the Turkish Flora there were two ways to identify samples. One way based on the stamen features and the other based on the leaves and flowers. For nomenclatural reasons the specimens were cross checked with the existing type specimens known from Turkey and kept in some international herbaria. This thesis is formed by two sections. The first section is comprised of introduction, materials and methods and basic findings. Basic finding are the result of morphological, anatomical, palynological and ecological investigations. In the second section of the thesis, a revision of Salvia in Central Anatolia, Turkey is given. This includes results of numeric studies and infrageneric grouping. Soil types and habitat characteristics were also studied. Soil samples were taken from the various locations and analyzed for their content. The populations were revisited to determine the sustainability and vulnerability of each taxon. IUCN threat categories were determined based on habitat information and species limitations. The phenological data and relevant field observations were all recorded. In Central Anatolia 43 Salvia species were found. Among the specimens collected from the area one taxon was re-discovered after 116 years.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Wyoming, 2008. / Title from PDF title page (viewed on August 6, 2009). Includes bibliographical references (p. 88-102).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2005. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 121-140).

Texte remanié de la: Th. Etat--Université de Provence, 1989. / Bibliogr. p. 333-379. Index.

Salvia divinorum is a plant species native to Oaxaca, Mexico. The leaves of this plant contain the active compound Salvinorin A which, when smoked, causes the user to experience hallucinogenic effects. Currently Salvia divinorum is not listed as a scheduled drug under the United States’ Controlled Substances Act, though some states such as Ohio and Texas have passed laws to prohibit its use. Commercially available Salvia divinorum products are available in fortified extract concentrations claiming to contain up to fifty times the Salvinorin A concentrations naturally present in naturally growing Salvia divinorum plants. The stable isotope ratios of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen can reflect plant responses to certain environmental conditions, such as atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations or the degree of water limitation a plant experiences, which in turn can be unique to a geographical region a plant grows in. Because these isotope ratios vary by location, a local plant species from a known area can inform researchers about the elemental makeup of a plant native to a particular region, as well as whether the plant was grown indoors or outdoors. Booth et al. (2010), demonstrated the effectiveness of using stable isotope ratio data of marijuana for the determination of drug trafficking patterns (1). Booth and coworkers also speculated that variations in marijuana chemical composition due to isotope fractionation would account for the differences in isotopic ratios within the marijuana samples. In this experiment, commercially purchased leaf samples of Salvia divinorum were analyzed using an Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer for the purpose of establishing the stable isotope ratios by geographic region. Salvia divinorum samples from Oaxaca, Mexico exhibited stable isotope ratios that could be differentiated from those grown in Hawaii, USA. Fortification of leaves had a demonstrated effect on the isotope ratios for the elements examined, indicating that as fortification of the product increased the stable isotope ratios became either enriched or depleted of the heavier isotope. Fortification resulted in stable isotope ratios reflecting regions unlike where it had been grown, thus giving confounding information regarding geographic origin.