Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) associated with Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE)^(1-3) , on-line headspace derivatization ^(4-6) and the selectivity of different SPME coatings ⁽⁷⁾ were studied. Trace amounts of Veltol ®, Veltol Plus® and short chain fatty acids in food samples were analyzed by GC/MS. Since SPME is not directly applicable to solid samples, SPME associated with MAE techniques was studied for solids, primarily food samples. The efficiency of classical solvent extraction and MAE was compared. The parameters which affect SPME, were optimized for the determination of Veltol® and Veltol Plus® in food products such as potato chips and coffee. The technique gave a detection limit of 2 ppb for Veltol Plus ® which is 200 times more sensitive than conventional GC technique. Headspace injection is characterized by simple and easy handling of complicated solid and solution matrices. Headspace injection, however, is not suitable for high molecular weight substances or non-volatile compounds. An on-line derivatization headspace technique was studied for short chain fatty acids. These samples are difficult to do by classical GC. The developed technique simplified the conventional derivatization procedures and combined the sample preparation and GC/MS analysis into one step. The thermostatting temperature, time, solvent and matrix effects were investigated. Low calorie fat and some agricultural samples were analyzed. The detection limit for acetic acid is 8 ppb. SPME is a novel sample introduction technique. The behavior of di(methylsiloxane), polyacrylate and Carbowax coatings on SPME fibers for compounds having different functional groups were investigated. The selectivities of the coating, sample pH and the sample temperature were investigated. / Ph. D.

Biomarkers present a non-invasive means of detecting cancer because they can be obtained from body fluids. They can also be used for prognosis and assessing response to treatment. To limit interferences it is essential to pretreat biological samples before analysis. Sample preparation methods include extraction of analyte from an unsuitable matrix, purification, concentration or dilution and labeling. The many advantages offered by microfluidics include portability, speed, automation and integration. Because of the difficulties encountered in integrating this step in microfluidic devices most sample preparation methods are often carried out off-chip. In the fabrication of micro-total analysis systems it is important that all steps be integrated in a single platform. To fabricate polymeric microdevices, I prepared templates from silicon wafers by the process of photolithography. The design on the template was transferred to a polymer piece by hot embossing, and a complete device was formed by bonding the imprinted piece with a cover plate. I prepared affinity columns in these devices and used them for protein extraction. The affinity monolith was prepared from reactive monomers to facilitate immobilization of antibodies. Extraction and concentration of biomarkers on this column showed specificity to the target molecule. This shows that biomarkers could be extracted, purified and concentrated with the use of microfluidic affinity columns.I prepared negatively charged ion-permeable membranes in poly(methyl methacrylate) microchips by in situ polymerization just beyond the injection intersection. Cancer marker proteins were electrophoretically concentrated at the intersection by exclusion from this membrane on the basis of both size and charge, prior to microchip capillary electrophoresis. I optimized separation conditions to achieve baseline separation of the proteins. Band broadening and peak tailing were limited by controlling the preconcentration time. Under my optimized conditions a 40-fold enrichment of bovine serum albumin was achieved with 4 min of preconcentration while >10-fold enrichment was obtained for cancer biomarker proteins with just 1 min of preconcentration. I have also demonstrated that the processes of sample enrichment, on-chip fluorescence labeling and purification could be automated in a single voltage-driven platform. This required the preparation of a reversed-phase monolithic column, polymerized from butyl methacrylate monomers, in cyclic olefin copolymer microdevices. Samples enriched through solid phase extraction were labeled on the column, and much of the unreacted dye was rinsed off before elution. The retention and elution characteristics of fluorophores, amino acids and proteins on these columns were investigated. A linear relationship between eluted peak areas and protein concentration demonstrated that this technique could be used to quantify on-chip labeled samples. This approach could also be used to simultaneously concentrate, label and separate multiple proteins.

GC×GC is an efficient tool for the analysis of volatile compound. However, improvements are still required on VOC extraction, GC×GC setup and data processing. Different sample preparation techniques and GC×GC setup were compared based on the literature study and experimental results. Each VOC extraction technology has its own drawbacks and needs new developments. There wasn’t an ideal sample preparation technique to recover all the VOCs from the beverage sample. Furthermore, the VOCs recovered by different techniques were very different. The discussion of the pros and cons of the different techniques in our study can serve as a guide for the further development and improvement of these techniques. Combining the results from different sample preparation techniques is necessary to achieve a higher coverage of global VOC profiling. For the known fermentative aromatic compounds, the best coverage can be reached by using SPME together with SPE for beer, and VALLME for wine and cider. A fine GC×GC method development involves modulator selection, column combination and parameter optimization. Thermal modulator provides high detection sensitivity and allow exceptional trace analysis. Since the analytes coverage is the most important factor of in beverage VOC profiling, thermal modulation is a better choice. In fermented beverages, there are more polar compounds than non-polar compounds. The most suitable column combination is polar-semipolar. Same column diameters shall be used to minimize the column overloading. GC×GC parameters must be optimized. These parameters interact with each other therefore statistical prediction model is required. Response surface model is capable of doing this job while using a small number of experimental tests. The nearest neighbor distance was a suitable measurement for peak dispersion. Column and detector saturations are unavoidable if the metabolic sample is measured at one dilution level, incorrect peak deconvolution and mass spectrum construction may happen. Data processing results can be improved by a two-stage data processing strategy that will incorporate a targeted data processing and cleaning approach upstream of the “standard” untargeted analysis. Our experiments show a significant improvement in annotation and quantification results for targeted compounds causing instrumental saturation. After subtracting the saturate signal of targeted compounds, the MS construction was improved for co-eluted compounds. Incomplete signal subtraction may occur. It leads to the detection of false positive peaks or to interferences with the construction of mass spectra of co-diluted peaks. High-resolution MS libraries and more accurate peak area detection methods should be tested for further improvement.

The extraction and recovery of trace organic material from semi-solid and solid matrices is often the slowest and most error-prone step of an analytical method. The conventional liquid extraction techniques for solids and semi-solids materials (Soxhlet) have two main disadvantages. The first, large volumes of organic solvent are required, which can lead to sample contamination and "losses" due to volatilization during concentration steps. The second, to achieve an exhaustive extraction can require several hours to days. With the development of sophisticated instrumentation with detection limits in the picogram and femtogram levels, pressure is finally felt within the analytical community to develop and validate sample preparation procedures which can be used to rapidly isolate trace level organics from complex matrices.Because of its applicability to solid, semi-solid, and liquid matrices microwave-assisted (MAE) extraction has emerged as a powerful sample preparation technique. The objective of this research was to evaluate directly focused microwave energy for the isolation of systemic fungicide residues from woody plant tissues.The hallmark of microwave extraction (MAE) is accelerated dissolution kinetics as a consequence of the rapid heating processes that occur when a microwave field is applied to a sample. The current popularity of MAE resides mainly on its applicability to a wide range of sample types because the selectivity can be easily manipulated by altering solvent polarities.Propiconazole is a systemic fungicide, used to combat the fungal pathogen Ophiostoma ulmi, the casual agent of Dutch elm disease (DED). It was successfully extracted from treated Ulmus americana (elm tree) using MAE with a percent recovery of 395% in 15 minutes. Until now, techniques for rapid and efficient extraction of polar material from wood were non-existent. This work produces results much quicker than Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE). The influence of pH, microwave power, and time on extraction efficiency was also investigated. The extraction methodology was optimized and statistically validated.This MAE method combined with GC-MS was used to study the diffusion patterns and degradation of propiconazole in tree bark over extended time periods. Because of the complex nature of woody plant systems, it was realized that a more theoretical means must be used to determine the degradation rate of propiconazole in water systems. As a result, propiconazole was reacted with water under controlled temperature and pH conditions; to measure the degradation rate of propiconazole.The internal pH of elm sap is about 6.0; the slightly acidic environment and natural enzymes within the xylem vessels are known to catalyze the degradation of propiconazole (1). Novartis Inc. has marketed propiconazole as having fungicidal effects in injected elms for nearly two years. Our degradation studies have indicated much shorter lifetimes. To confirm our fate studies, the activation energy for the degradation reaction of propiconazole was calculated. This information provided valuable insight into revising dosage and treatment frequency for maximum protection of the elm against Dutch elm disease. Anti-fungal activity among metabolites was also explored. This is the first reported use of MAE to monitor the degradation of systemic pesticides in woody plant material. / Ph. D.

Mammalian brain is challenging to study due to its heterogeneity and complexity. However, recent advances in molecular imaging, genomics and proteomics have contributed significantly to achieve insights into molecular basis of brain function and pathogenesis of neurological disorders. Efficient sample preparation is an integral part of a successful mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics. Apart from the identification, quantification of proteins is needed to investigate the alterations between proteome profiles from different sample sets. Therefore, this thesis investigates optimizing and application of the MS compatible sample preparation techniques for the identification and quantification of proteins from brain tissue. The central objective of this thesis was (i) to improve the extraction of proteins as well as membrane proteins (MPs) from the brain tissue and (ii) to apply the optimized method along with the stable isotope dimethyl labeling (DML) and label-free (LF) MS approaches for the relative quantification of the brain proteome profiles during neurological conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and traumatic brain injury (TBI).  First study described in this thesis is focused on the qualitative aspects for the brain tissue sample preparation. The optimized extraction buffers from first study containing n-octyl-β-glucopyranside or triton X-114 were used in the further quantitative studies to extract the proteins from patient (AD or TBI) and control human brain samples. Triton X-114 has additional advantage of separating MPs into a micellar phase. Therefore we also investigated the possibility to apply this in combination with DML quantitation approach for enrichment of low abundant MPs from AD brains. AD and TBI causes severe socio-economic burden on the society and therefore there is a need to develop diagnostic markers to detect the early changes in the pathology of the disease. Analytical tools and techniques applied and discussed in this thesis for neuroproteomics applications proved to be powerful and reliable for analyzing complex biological samples to generate high-throughput screening and unbiased identification and quantitation of disease-specific proteins that are of great importance in understanding the disease pathology.

<p>X-ray fluorescence (XRF) detection of heavy metals is a cost- and time-effective method for investigation of polluted areas. Compared to laboratory analysis, XRF analysis is limited by high detection limits and uncertainties in some situations. Preparation of samples is known to affect the results of measurements.</p><p>The purpose of this thesis is to bring a deeper understanding of how different factors affect the results of XRF-analysis. A large number of measurements have been made with the instruments Niton XLt 700 and Niton Xli 700. Results from measurements of lead, zinc and copper have been analysed.</p><p>This study has shown that a greater moisture content will give a lower measured concentration for the same sample. If the moisture content is known, it is possible to make good approximations of concentrations in dry samples. No obvious differences were found between different metals.</p><p>Proper homogenisation of samples was found to be one of the most critical issues. It should be noted that laboratories do not usually homogenise samples prior to analysis, so samples sent for laboratory verification should therefore be homogenised before sending.</p><p>Sample preparation, including drying, sieving to finer grain-sizes and analysing in a special sample cup was found to increase the measured concentrations and decrease the variation between measurements. The concentrations differed with different sample matrices and with sample preparation. Because of the differences, measurements should always be correlated with laboratory analysis before any conclusions can be made. In situations when metals are well within detection range of the XRF instrument, the only preparation needed is in most cases homogenisation. If metal levels are just at the limit, or just below the detection limit, further preparations of samples should be made. When drying samples makes detection possible, more preparation is usually not worth the effort. If detection limits still are a problem after drying, the samples should be sieved and analysed in sample cups. In situations where concentrations still are below the</p><p>detection limit when analysing in sample cups, or if the measurements are disturbed for other reasons, another method than XRF-analysis must be used. When XRF analysis is possible, the method is preferable compared to only laboratory analysis. This cost- and time effective method makes a larger number of measurements possible, and gives a more complete overview of a polluted area.</p> / <p>Analys med röntgenfluorescensdetektor (XRF) är en snabb och kostnadseffektiv fältmetod för detektion av tungmetaller i mark. Nackdelen är att mätningarna inte är tillförlitliga i alla sammanhang och att detektionsgränsen för många ämnen är förhållandevis hög. Det är sedan tidigare känt att olika former av provbearbetning påverkar mätresultaten.</p><p>I detta examensarbete har undersökts hur olika faktorer påverkar mätresultaten vid analys av jordprover med XRF instrument. Faktorerna som undersökts är inverkan av vattenkvot, kornstorlek, provpåsar och olika provbearbetningsmetoder. Vid provbearbetningsförsöken skickades prover även in till externt laboratorium för jämförande analys. Metaller som undersökts är bly, zink och koppar.</p><p>Vid undersökningen konstaterades att en ökad vattenkvot ger upphov till lägre mätvärden. Vid kännedom om vattenkvot kan halt per torrsubstans med god överensstämmelse uppskattas utifrån mätningar på fuktiga prov. Är precisionskraven stora och vattenkvoten varierande och okänd bör dock proverna torkas innan mätningar görs. Ingen avsevärd skillnad sågs mellan de olika metaller som undersöktes.</p><p>Vid undersökningen om provbearbetningens betydelse visade det sig att homogeniseringen av proverna är mycket viktig, inte minst av prover som skickas till laboratorieanalys.</p><p>Ökad provbearbetning med torkning och siktning till mindre kornstorlek tenderar att ge högre mätvärden med XRF instrument. Storleksmässigt är mätvärden vid obearbetade prov mest överensstämmande med laboratorieanalys. Mest skiljer sig analys på finsiktade prover i provkopp. Korrelationsmässigt finns i en del fall en tendens till bättre överensstämmelse med mer bearbetade prov. Den största vinsten med ökad bearbetning av prover konstaterades i detta arbete vara att mark med lägre metallkoncentrationer då kan analyseras.</p><p>I de fall där halterna av metaller ligger väl inom XRF instrumentets detektionsområde visade det sig att det oftast är tillräckligt att endast homogenisera proverna innan analys görs. I de fall där koncentrationen av metaller är på gränsen till vad XRF instrumentet kan detektera rekommenderas att proverna torkas, eller om nödvändigt torkas, siktas och analyseras i provkopp. Där nivåerna av metaller ligger under detektionsgränsen för XRF instrument trots provbearbetning, eller där andra ämnen till exempel järn stör mätningarna, måste en annan analysmetod väljas.</p>

Técnicas modernas de preparo de amostra têm sido utilizadas na determinação de diferentes classes de compostos em diversos tipos de matrizes. Essas técnicas podem ser divididas em dois grandes grupos, as baseadas em solvente e as baseadas sorvente, foco do trabalho. Dentre os materiais sorventes mais estudados atualmente, os derivados de grafeno têm se destacado devido a suas propriedades físico-químicas favoráveis para realizar sorção com uma grande variedade de compostos de interesse. Por isso, no presente trabalho são apresentadas possibilidades de utilização de materiais baseados em grafeno nas seguintes técnicas de preparo de amostras: microextração por sorvente empacotado (MEPS), extração \"\"on-line\"\" e extração sortiva em barra de agitação (SBSE). Para a técnica MEPS, foi realizado a síntese de óxido de grafeno e grafeno suportados por ligação covalente em aminopripil sílica. Esses materiais foram empregados como sorventes para determinação de parabenos em amostras de água. O método desenvolvido apresentou limites de quantificação (LOQ) que variaram de <a name=\"_Hlk498351551\">0,2 a 0,3 &mu;g/L, coeficientes de variação (CV) &lt; 19,2% e exatidão de 82,3 a 119,2%. Os materiais utilizados na técnica MEPS também foram utilizados para empacotar colunas de extração \"on-line\" e realizar uma comparação entre as fases sintetizadas. O método de extração \"on-line\" apresentou LOQ de 0,5 &mu;g/L, exatidão de 88,2 à 107,2 e CV &lt; 16%. A comparação entre as colunas de extração empacotadas com o grafeno e seu óxido suportados na aminopropil sílica mostrou que o grafeno suportado na sílica apresenta maior retenção para os parabenos mais apolares. Com relação ao desenvolvimento de barras de SBSE revestidas com grafeno, o método desenvolvido empregando as barras de SBSE apresentou valores de LOQ que variaram de 2 à 8 &mu;g/L, exatidão de 81,9 à 126,3% e CV &lt; 30%. Além disso, avaliou-se o uso do grafeno e óxido de grafeno ligado a sílica com grupamentos amino variando algumas condições de síntese e testando esses materiais para analitos das classes das triazinas, sulfonamidas e anti-inflamatórios não esteroidais. Também são apresentados testes iniciais realizados para um novo modo de extração proposto, similar a técnica SBSE, avaliando a extração de parabenos e anti-inflamatórios não esteroidais. / Modern sample preparation techniques have been applied to the determination of different compounds class in several matrices. These techniques might be divided into two groups, solvent and sorbent based, the last being the goal of this work. Nowadays, among the most studied materials the graphene based ones has been highlighted due to its physical chemical properties favorable to sorption process of a variety of interested compounds. The present work shows possibilities to employ graphene based materials in the follow sample preparation techniques: microextraction by packed sorbent (MEPS), \"on-line\" extraction, and stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE). For MEPS, the materials graphene oxide and graphene supported on aminopropyl silica through covalent bounds were synthesized. These materials were employed as sorbent to determine parabens in water samples. The developed method showed limits of quantification (LOQ) ranging from 0,2 a 0,3 &mu;g/L, coefficients of variation (CV) &lt; 19,2% and accuracy ranging from 82,3 à 119,2%. The synthetized materials used in MEPS were also used and compared to an \"on-line\" method employing an extraction column packed with them. The \"on-line\" method showed LOQ of 0,5 &mu;g/L, accuracy ranging from 88,2 to 107,2 and CV &lt; 16%. The comparison between packed column with graphene and graphene oxide supported on aminopropyl silica showed that graphene had a higher retention for parabens with high Log Kow. The method developed with SBSE bars coated with graphene showed LOQ ranging from 2 to 8 &mu;g/L, accuracy ranging from 81,9 to 126,3% and CV &lt; 30%. Moreover, the employment of graphene oxide and graphene synthetized by changing some synthesis conditions and testing these materials to extract triazines, sulfonamides, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs was also evaluated. In addition, are presented the preliminary tests regarding to a new extraction mode, similar to SBSE. These tests were done for parabens and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

O aprimoramento das técnicas analíticas viabilizou a metabolômica, uma área da ciência que busca compreender, de forma comparativa, os metabólitos envolvidos nas vias bioquímicas. A metabolômica está inserida no contexto das \"ômicas\", que teve início na \"Era Genômica\", a qual permitiu a identificação de diversos genes. Em seguida, o interesse dos pesquisadores centrou no estudo dos metabólitos (metabolômica) mostrando ser uma ferramenta valiosa na pesquisa do transplante renal, que exige um tratamento medicamentoso por meio de imunossupressores. A combinação destes imunossupressores pode minimizar a rejeição do órgão transplantado, reforçando a necessidade de um estudo metabolômico, a fim de avaliar e comparar as mudanças ocorridas após o transplante em nível molecular, melhorando o conhecimento sobre a influência destes regimes e dando subsídios sobre prognósticos possíveis na área de transplante renal. Nesta tese foram avaliadas 2 terapias: Everolimo/ Prednisona/Tacrolimo (grupo 1) e Micofenolato mofetil/Prednisona/Tacrolimo (grupo 2) a partir de uma abordagem untargeted. No presente trabalho foram coletadas amostras de urina de pacientes ao longo de 6 meses. Foi necessário determinar a melhor condição para análise das amostras de urina dos pacientes. Desta forma, foram realizados estudos sobre alguns parâmetros que impactam no preparo de amostra abordando a influência da urease, tipos e proporção de solventes para precipitação de proteína, seleção do melhor agente derivatizante e tratamento de dados. A avaliação da medida de qualidade dos tratamentos com urease foi feita a partir do desvio padrão relativo (RSD) dos valores de intensidade de pico. A concentração de 10 mg mL-1 apresentou o melhor resultado. O estudo mostrou também que o teor de ureia na urina pode influenciar na identificação dos compostos. O número de compostos identificados foi menor quando a urina não foi tratada com urease, com aproximadamente 10 compostos a menos em relação à amostra tratada com a enzima, na mesma concentração de ureia adicionada. Dos solventes orgânicos testados para precipitação de proteínas nas amostras de urina, o isopropanol mostrou ser o solvente mais adequado na proporção 1:6 urina:solvente (v/v), utilizando-se 100 &#181;L de urina. Foram testados dois protocolos de derivatização para análises por GC-MS: metoximação e sililação utilizando BSTFA e cloroformiato de metila. A comparação mostrou que o procedimento por BSTFA, com 40 metabólitos identificados, foi superior ao cloroformiato de metila, com 13 compostos identificados. No tratamento de dados com o software XCMS, os seguintes parâmetros foram avaliados: largura a meia altura do pico (fwhm), largura da banda (bw) e threshold (sntresh). Para avaliar a melhor combinação destes parâmetros, foi feita uma variação univariada destes valores. A qualidade do resultado de cada combinação foi monitorada pelos valores gerados de número de missing values, quantidade de picos com RSD <15% e número de valores duplicados. Os valores ótimos foram obtidos para a combinação: fwhm=4, bw=2 e threshold=5. A abordagem do estudo dos dois grupos de pacientes baseou-se inicialmente na comparação entre o dia 7 da terapia com os demais períodos (dia 14, mês 1, mês 3 e mês 6) e posteriormente avaliou-se a evolução temporal. A partir do mês 3 os valores de correlação e predição dos modelos de PLS-DA são melhores e já é eficaz na diferenciação entre os dois grupos. Foram observadas perturbações no metabolismo de carboidratos em ambos os grupos, como açúcares, glicerol e N-acetil-D-manosamina. No grupo 1, foram observados metabólitos discriminantes da classe dos poliois e das vias do ciclo do ácido cítrico e degradação de xenobióticos, enquanto que, no grupo 2, foi observada alteração do hidroxibutirato, um corpo cetônico. Neste grupo, foi observado também um aumento do ácido hipúrico, ácido acetamido butírico, ácido benzoico, entre outros. Nesta tese foi possível demonstrar que a metabolômica é uma ferramenta importante para comparar metabólitos discriminantes entre dois regimes imunossupressores, sendo um estudo piloto que visa fornecer subsídios para avaliação da influência destas terapias no prognóstico de transplante renal. / The improvement of analytical techniques enabled the emergence of metabolomics, which aims to compare the metabolites involved in biochemical pathways, in certain biological conditions. Metabolomics is inserted in the \"omics\" context, which began in the \"Genomic Age\", and allowed the identification of several genes. After that, the researchers focused on the study of metabolites. Among several applications, metabolomics can be a valuable tool in renal transplant research, which requires a drug treatment through immunosuppressants. The combination of these immunosuppressants can minimize toxicity and rejection of the transplanted organ, reinforcing the need for a metabolomic study, in order to evaluate and compare changes after transplantation at the molecular level, improving knowledge about the influence of these regimens and giving subsidies on prognosis in the area of renal transplantation. In this thesis two immunosuppressive therapies were evaluated by an untargeted approach: Everolimus/Prednisone/Tacrolimus (group 1) and Mycophenolate mofetil/Prednisone/Tacrolimus (group 2). In this study, urine samples were collected from patients over 6 months. It was necessary to determine the best condition for analysis of patients\' urine samples. Thus, studies were carried out on some parameters that impact on sample preparation, evaluating the influence of urease, types and proportion of solvents for protein precipitation, selection of the best derivatizing agent, and data treatment. The evaluation of the quality measure of the urease treatments was made from the relative standard deviation (RSD) of the peak intensity values. The concentration of 10 mg mL-1 presented the best result. The study also showed that urine urea content may influence the identification of the compounds. The number of identified compounds was lower when urine was not treated with urease, with approximately 10 compounds less than the enzyme-treated sample, at the same concentration of urea added. In the evaluation of the organic solvents tested for protein precipitation in the urine samples, isopropanol was the most suitable solvent in the ratio 1: 6 urine:solvent (v/v), using 100 &#181;L of urine. Two derivatization protocols were tested for GC-MS analysis: metoximation and silylation with BSTFA and methyl chloroformate. The comparison between the two derivatization protocols showed that the BSTFA procedure, with 40 identified metabolites, was superior to methyl chloroformate with 13 compounds identified. In data processing with the XCMS software, the following parameters were evaluated: full width at half maximum of the peak (fwhm), bandwidth (bw) and threshold (sntresh). To evaluate the best combination of these parameters, a univariate variation of these values was made. The quality of the result of each combination was monitored by the number of missing values, number of peaks with RSD <15%, and number of duplicate values. The optimal values were obtained for the combination: fwhm=4, bw=2 and threshold =5. The study of the two groups of patients was initially based on the comparison between day 7 of the therapy with the other periods (day 14, month 1, month 3 and month 6) and later the temporal evolution was evaluated. From month 3 the values of correlation and prediction of the PLS-DA models are better and already effective in the differentiation between the two groups. Disorders in carbohydrate metabolism were observed in both groups with sugars and glycerol and N-acetyl-D-mannosamine as discriminant metabolites. In group 1, discriminant metabolites of the class of polyols and citric acid cycle pathways and degradation of xenobiotics were observed, and in group 2 alteration of hydroxybutyrate, a ketone body, was observed. In this group an increase of hippuric acid, acetamido butyric acid, benzoic acid, among others, was also observed. In this thesis it was possible to demonstrate that metabolomics is an important tool to compare discriminant metabolites between two immunosuppressive regimens, being a pilot study that aims to provide future subsidies to evaluate the influence of these therapies on the renal transplant prognosis

A crescente demanda por analises rápidas, simples e eco-fiendly tem feito da busca pela miniaturização e automatização dos procedimentos de preparo de amostra uma necessidade permanente na academia e na indústria. Atualmente, embora existam diversas técnicas miniaturizadas de preparo de amostra, estas ainda são utilizadas de forma manual na maioria das situações, pois o acesso às possibilidades de automatização em muitos laboratórios de química é ainda bastante limitado. Afortunadamente, as plataformas de robótica Open-Source estão se tornado uma alternativa interessante no desenvolvimento lab made de todo tipo de instrumentos e sistemas automatizados. Esta tese apresenta três exemplos de desenvolvimento no laboratóriode sistemas robotizados para a automatização de técnicas miniaturizadas de preparo de amostras. Num primeiro estudo, foi projetado, construído e programado um robô cartesiano capaz de operar simultaneamente seis microsseringas de extração. Este sistema foi posto à prova na automatização da microextração por sorvente empacotado (MEPS) e validado na extração de HPAs em amostras de esgoto sanitário, demostrando alta precisão, exatidão e frequência de análise. Um segundo robô cartesiano, equipado com uma única unidade de extração, foi projetado, construído e programado para conseguir pela primeira vez a integração on-line da microextração em fase liquida (LPME) com a análise mediante cromatografia líquida. Este sistema possibilitou o desenvolvimento de um método para determinação de triazinas, com tempo de total de análise de 10 minutos, incluindo o preparo da amostra e a separação/detecção dos analitos. Finalmente, por integração de técnicas em fluxo, ferramentas de robótica Open-Source e impressão 3D, a microextração líquido-líquido dispersiva baseada na solidificação da fase orgânica (DLLME-SFO) foi completamente automatizada pela primeira vez. O sistema assim desenvolvido foi validado no desenvolvimento de um método para a determinação de parabenos em produtos de cuidado pessoal, águas, urina e saliva, demostrando de esta forma, o grande potencial das tecnologias modernas no desenvolvimento de novos, versáteis e eficientes sistemas automatizados nos laboratórios de química. / The growing demand for rapid, simple and eco-friendly analyzes has made the search for miniaturization and automation of sample preparation procedures a permanent necessity. Although, nowadays there are a number of miniaturized sample preparation techniques, they are used manually in most situations. The access to automation tools is limited yet, in many chemistry laboratories. Fortunately, Open-Source robotics platforms have become an interesting alternative in the lab-made development lab made instruments and automated systems. This thesis presents three examples of laboratory development of robotic systems for the automation of miniaturized sample preparation techniques. In a first study, a cartesian robot capable of simultaneously operating six extraction microsystems was designed, constructed and programmed. This system was tested in the automation of microextraction by packaged sorbent (MEPS) and validated in the extraction of HPAs in sanitary sewage samples, demonstrating high accuracy and throughput analysis. A second cartesian robot, equipped with a single extraction unit, was designed, constructed and programmed to accomplish for the first time the online integration of the liquid phase microextraction (LPME) and the liquid chromatography analysis. This system allowed the development of a method for the determination of triazines, with an analysis time of 10 minutes, including sample preparation and separation / detection of the analytes. Finally, by integrating flow techniques, Open-Source robotics tools and 3D printing, dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction based on solidification of floating organic drop (DLLME-SFO) was completely automated for the first time. The developed system was validated in the development of a method for the determination of parabens in personal care products, water, urine and saliva, thus demonstrating the great potential of modern technologies in the development of new, versatile and efficient automated systems in chemistry laboratories.

Neste estudo foram avaliados procedimentos analíticos comparativos para o preparo de três tipos de amostras agroindustriais (rochas, cafés e antibióticos) na determinação de elementos inorgânicos pelas técnicas de espectrometria de absorção atômica em chama (FAAS), espectrometria de emissão atômica em chama (FAES) e espectrometria de absorção atômica em forno de grafite (GFAAS). Seis procedimentos de decomposição de rochas foram estudados e classificados em 3 grupos: GRUPO I: bombas de teflon; GRUPO II: bloco digestor; GRUPO III: forno de microondas convencional. Os elementos Cu, Fe, Mn e Zn foram quantificados pela técnica FAAS em duas amostras comerciais e dois materiais de referência padrão de rochas. Os melhores resultados foram obtidos para os procedimentos que empregaram forno de microondas convencional usando-se HF na mistura ácida. Os teores de 9 nutrientes foram determinados em 35 amostras de café (verde e torrado) por FAAS (Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn e Zn), FAES (Na e K) e pelo método Kjeldahl (N). As amostras foram preparadas por dois procedimentos de decomposição via úmida, um deles empregando bloco digestor e V2O5 como catalisador e o outro forno de microondas convencional. A exatidão dos métodos foi verificada pela análise de três materiais de referência padrão de folhas. Um teste foi realizado moendo-se uma das amostras de café verde em dois tipos de moinho (criogênico e tipo Willye) para avaliar possíveis contaminações. Contaminação com Fe foi observada com o uso do moinho tipo Willye. Outro teste constou da determinação desses 9 nutrientes em uma amostra de café verde com casca. Altos teores de Na, Ca, K e Fe foram encontrados na casca do café verde, confirmando assim a possibilidade de reaproveitamento desses resíduos em processos de adubação e na produção de ração animal. Análises quimiométricas aplicando-se PCA e HCA mostraram que os elementos Na, K, Ca, Mg e Fe foram os principais responsáveis pela discriminação entre as amostras de café verde e torrado. Um método foi desenvolvido para a determinação simultânea de Cd e Pb por GFAAS em antibióticos sólidos usados na fermentação da cana de açúcar. Seis amostras de antibióticos sólidos comerciais foram analisadas injetando-se 20 µL das amostras decompostas em meio ácido (forno de microondas convencional) dentro da plataforma de grafite pré-tratada com W seguido de 5 µL do modificador químico Pd 1000 mg L-1. As amostras foram solubilizadas por dois procedimentos: 1) 3 mL HNO3 conc. + 2 mL H2O2 30% (v/v) e, 2) 4 mL HNO3 20% (v/v) + 1 mL H2O2 30% (v/v). As temperaturas de pirólise e atomização do programa de aquecimento do atomizador foram fixadas em 600oC e 2200oC, respectivamente. As massas características calculadas para a determinação simultânea foram 1,6 pg Cd e 41,7 pg Pb. Limites de detecção (LOD) baseados na absorbância integrada foram 0,02 µg L-1 Cd e 0,7 µg L-1 Pb e os desvios padrões relativos (n = 10) para Cd e Pb foram 5,7% e 8,0%, respectivamente. As recuperações de Cd e Pb adicionadas às amostras digeridas variaram de 91% a 125% (Cd) e 80% a 112% (Pb). / Analytical comparative procedures for the preparation of three types of agro industrials samples (rocks, coffees and antibiotics) were evaluated in the determination of inorganic elements by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS), flame atomic emission spectrometry (FAES) and graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) techniques. Six decomposition procedures of rocks were studied and classified in 3 groups: GROUP I: wet digestion in teflon bombs; GROUP II: wet digestion in digester heating block; GROUP III: wet digestion in conventional microwave oven system. The elements Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn were quantified by FAAS in two commercial samples and two standard reference materials of rocks. The best results were obtained for the procedures that employed conventional microwave oven system using HF in the acid mixture. The contents of 9 nutrients were determined in 35 coffee samples (green and roasted) by FAAS (Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn), FAES (Na and K) and Kjeldahl method (N). Samples were prepared by two different wet digestion decomposition procedures; one of them employing digester heating block and the catalyst V2O5 and the other one employing a conventional microwave oven system. The accuracy of the methods was checked after analysis of three leave standard reference materials. A test was done in a green coffee sample ground in two types of mill (cryogenic and Willye) to evaluate possible contaminations. Contamination by Fe was observed with the use of Willye type mill. Another test was the determination of these 9 nutrients in an unpulped ripe cherry. High levels of Na, Ca, K and Fe were encountered in the green coffee rinds, which can be used as a complement in manuring process and for animal ration production. Chemometric analysis using PCA and HCA showed that Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cu and Fe were the principal elements to discriminate samples between green and roasted coffee. A method has been developed for the simultaneous determination of Cd and Pb in antibiotics used in sugar-cane fermentation by GFAAS. Six samples of commercial solid antibiotics were analyzed by injecting 20 µL of digested samples (closed microwave oven system) into the pretreated graphite platform with W followed by 5 µL of 1000 mg L-1 Pd chemical modifier. Samples were solubilized by two procedures: 1) 3 mL HNO3 conc. + 2 mL H2O2 30% (v/v) and, 2) 4 mL HNO3 20% (v/v) + 1 mL H2O2 30% (v/v). The pyrolysis and atomization temperatures of the heating program of the atomizer were fixed at 600oC and 2200oC, respectively. The calculated characteristic masses for the simultaneous determination were 1.6 pg Cd and 41.7 pg Pb. Limits of detection (LOD) based on integrated absorbance were 0.02 µg L-1 Cd and 0.7 µg L-1 Pb and the relative standard deviations (n = 10) for Cd and Pb were 5.7% and 8.0%, respectively. The recoveries of Cd and Pb added to the digested samples varied from 91% to 125% (Cd) and 80% to 112% (Pb).