Biomarkers present a non-invasive means of detecting cancer because they can be obtained from body fluids. They can also be used for prognosis and assessing response to treatment. To limit interferences it is essential to pretreat biological samples before analysis. Sample preparation methods include extraction of analyte from an unsuitable matrix, purification, concentration or dilution and labeling. The many advantages offered by microfluidics include portability, speed, automation and integration. Because of the difficulties encountered in integrating this step in microfluidic devices most sample preparation methods are often carried out off-chip. In the fabrication of micro-total analysis systems it is important that all steps be integrated in a single platform. To fabricate polymeric microdevices, I prepared templates from silicon wafers by the process of photolithography. The design on the template was transferred to a polymer piece by hot embossing, and a complete device was formed by bonding the imprinted piece with a cover plate. I prepared affinity columns in these devices and used them for protein extraction. The affinity monolith was prepared from reactive monomers to facilitate immobilization of antibodies. Extraction and concentration of biomarkers on this column showed specificity to the target molecule. This shows that biomarkers could be extracted, purified and concentrated with the use of microfluidic affinity columns.I prepared negatively charged ion-permeable membranes in poly(methyl methacrylate) microchips by in situ polymerization just beyond the injection intersection. Cancer marker proteins were electrophoretically concentrated at the intersection by exclusion from this membrane on the basis of both size and charge, prior to microchip capillary electrophoresis. I optimized separation conditions to achieve baseline separation of the proteins. Band broadening and peak tailing were limited by controlling the preconcentration time. Under my optimized conditions a 40-fold enrichment of bovine serum albumin was achieved with 4 min of preconcentration while >10-fold enrichment was obtained for cancer biomarker proteins with just 1 min of preconcentration. I have also demonstrated that the processes of sample enrichment, on-chip fluorescence labeling and purification could be automated in a single voltage-driven platform. This required the preparation of a reversed-phase monolithic column, polymerized from butyl methacrylate monomers, in cyclic olefin copolymer microdevices. Samples enriched through solid phase extraction were labeled on the column, and much of the unreacted dye was rinsed off before elution. The retention and elution characteristics of fluorophores, amino acids and proteins on these columns were investigated. A linear relationship between eluted peak areas and protein concentration demonstrated that this technique could be used to quantify on-chip labeled samples. This approach could also be used to simultaneously concentrate, label and separate multiple proteins.

Thesis (PhD (Chemistry and Polymer Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / In this thesis the main capillary electrodriven chromatographic techniques (i.e. Capillary Electrochromatography CEC, Micellar Electrokinetic Chromatography MEKC and Microemulsion Electrokinetic Chromatography MEEKC) were compared in terms of column manufacturing, fundamental chromatographic performance, and some applications were developed. The first stage of this thesis aimed at developing improved packed and open tubular CEC columns. For the manufacturing of packed CEC columns, the frit-burning step proved of critical importance, together with the slow build-up of the packed bed. The making of open tubular columns is a relatively simple, "one pot" sol-gel reaction taking place in mild conditions. The nature of the gel and the resulting selectivity of the column could easily be changed by changing the precursors. In a second stage of this thesis the packed and open tubular CEC columns were evaluated chromatographically and compared with the results obtained by MEKC and MEEKC. All electrodriven separation techniques showed high efficiencies. The selectivity proved easier to tune with sol-gel chemistry for the making of open tubular columns. Resolution is acceptable for packed CEC, MEKC and MEEKC. For peak capacity, CEC has the advantage of a practically non-limited elution time, while MEKC and MEEKC suffer of the drawback of the existence of an elution window which is limited in time by the elution of the micelles. Some applications were developed in this study on open tubular CEC columns and for the packed CEC columns. Various sugars derivatized with 9- aminopyrene-1,4,6-trisulfonic acid (APTS) could be separated with open tubular CEC, using an octyl, amino or cyano stationary phase. Open tubular columns containing α, β and γ cyclodextrins attached to the stationary phase were developed. This approach proved promising for the separation of positional isomers. A method was developed for the analyses of a mixture of carbamates and for several steroids with packed column CEC directly coupled with MS.

Capillary electrochromatography (CEC) is a rapidly developing liquid chromatographic technique in which electroosmotic flow (EOF) is used to propel mobile phase through the chromatographic column. The use of EOF results in reduced band dispersion when compared with pressurised flow, but narrow capillaries are required to avoid dispersion due to heating that arises from the required application of high electrical potentials. Measurement of UV absorbance in these narrow capillaries is therefore relatively insensitive, demanding improved detection methods. This work presents an alternative strategy that is based on the combination of ion trap accumulation with time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Electrospray is most often used to transfer analytes from solution to the gas phase, concomitant with ionisation, when interfacing CEC to mass spectrometry. The small volumetric flow rates encountered in CEC, however, raise the possibility of other types of interface being effective. The work presented here describes the development of a novel interface in which a pulsed IR laser is used to vaporise chromatographic eluent, followed by ionisation using a pulsed UV laser. Vaporisation and ionisation both occur within the ion trap to remove the possibility of transmission losses. Ionisation laser wavelength is varied to impart a degree of selectivity. The presence of vaporised solvent and analyte ions inside the trap offers the possibility of performing ion-molecule chemistry. In developing this instrument, the electrochromatographic column was separated from the interface by an electrically grounded junction and a transfer capillary. To preserve chromatographic efficiency, the fluid dynamics of this junction between the column and the transfer capillary were investigated both computationally and experimentally. Simulations of the fluid dynamics of the junction are presented. In order to test the interface without the intermittent, chromatographic, delivery of analyte, a continuous leak inlet was employed. The performance of the instrument was evaluated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons because they are important environmental pollutants and because they are amenable to laser ionisation at 266 nm. Expressed as a number of theoretical plates per metre, an average chromatographic efficiency of 95,000 was obtained with a test mixture that consisted of acenaphthene, biphenyl, fluorene, naphthalene and phenanthrene. Furthermore, using the leak inlet, naphthalene was detected as a 100 nM solution in acetonitrile.

Micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) and capillary electrochromatography (CEC) are two of the major capillary electrophoresis (CE) modes that have been interfaced to mass spectrometry (MS) for sensitive and selective analysis of chiral compounds. This research combines these two modes and expands their applications in chiral CE analysis. Chapter 1 is a review of amino acid based molecular micelles used in MEKC-MS for enantioselective analysis over the past five years. In this chapter, a typical MEKC-MS experiment setup as well as detailed standard operating procedure in synthesis of molecular micelles and running a typical MEKC-MS experiment using the molecular micelles is discussed. Chapter 2 described a multivariate MEKC-MS optimization for the simultaneous analysis of two negatively charged model chiral compounds in negative ion mode with molecular micelles. In this chapter, a central composite design (CCD) is used to first construct a series of experiments to optimize all the important MEKC-MS parameters. Next, response surface methodology (RSM) was used to analyze the interactions between the factors, picking up the best separation and detection conditions, predicting the result of the chiral separation/MS detection, and finally running the actual experiment and comparing the chromatographic results with the predicted parameters. Chapter 3 demonstrates a similar multivariate MEKC-MS optimization for analysis of a positively charged model chiral compound in a positive ion mode. The same CCD and RSM methods were used to optimize the separations and MS sensitivity. Chapter 4 describes a chiral analysis of four neutral benzoin derivatives (hydrobenzoin, benzoin, benzoin methyl ether, and benzoin ethyl ether) using MEKC coupled to atmospheric pressure photo-ionization mass spectrometry (APPI-MS). The same multivariate experimental design strategy was used to optimize the MEKC as well as APPI-MS parameters. Simultaneous chiral separation of all four benzoin derivatives was achieved with high detection sensitivity compared to UV-detection. Chapter 5 introduces a novel one-pot synthesis scheme for an acryloyl-terminated, carbamate-linked surfactant-bound monolith with leucine head group and different chain lengths. The method promises to open up the discovery of new amino acid based polymeric monoliths for chiral separations and enhanced chemoselectivity for simultaneous chiral separations and enhanced detection in CEC and CEC-MS. In Chapter 6, five amide-linked surfactant-bound monoliths with different chain lengths and head groups (leucine, valine, and phenylalanine) were synthesized and characterized. Enantioseparation of several test compounds was achieved by CEC using the monolithic columns. One of the chiral surfactant, sodium 11-acrylamidoundecanoyl-L-leucinate (SAAUL), was polymerized in aqueous solution under 60Co radiation to form molecular micelle poly-SAAUL. MEKC experiments were carried out with the poly-SAAUL molecular micelle to separate ten cationic chiral compounds. The result was compared with the CEC separation using the AAUL monolithic column. This study is the first comparison of chiral CEC and MEKC with the same surfactant monomer, which has the capability of forming both chiral stationary phase for CEC and chiral pseudophase for MEKC.

Orientador: Carla Beatriz Grespan Bottoli / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Química / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-19T12:28:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Aguiar_ValeskaSoares_M.pdf: 8050447 bytes, checksum: b6132fb136ec04b91b3bdb6e10fbeaf4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: A Eletrocromatografia Capilar (CEC) é uma técnica de separação que combina a seletividade cromatográfica da Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência (HPLC) com a alta eficiência da Eletroforese Capilar (CE). A coluna capilar usada na separação é preenchida com uma fase estacionária, que pode ser do tipo particulada ou monolítica. Neste trabalho, monolitos poliméricos orgânicos foram preparados por polimerização in situ a partir dos monômeros octadecilmetacrilato (precursor e seletor hidrofóbico), etilenodimetacrilato (agente de entrecruzamento) e ácido 2-acriloilamido-2- metilpropanossulfóxido (monômero ionizável), além de diferentes tipos de solventes porogênicos, como álcool isoamílico, amílico, cicloexanol e 1,4- butanodiol, na presença e na ausência de água. Na primeira etapa do trabalho, variaram-se a natureza e a proporção entre os solventes porogênicos e, na segunda, o mesmo ocorreu com a proporção entre o conjunto de monômeros e de solventes porogênicos. As fases estacionárias foram caracterizadas por técnicas físicas como a microscopia eletrônica de varredura e a porosimetria; e as colunas moldadas com o material monolítico foram avaliadas pela técnica de CEC. As colunas apresentaram eficiência na faixa de 3000 a 50000 pratos m. A análise das isotermas de adsorção e dessorção de nitrogênio e das curvas de distribuição de poros permitiu afirmar que o material monolítico sintetizado é essencialmente micro e mesoporoso. Os macroporos para fluxo de fase móvel foram nitidamente observados em imagens de microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Assim, as fases monolíticas apresentaram três tipos de poros: micro, meso e macroporos. Na segunda parte do trabalho, avaliou-se a repetibilidade de preparo das fases monolíticas e notou-se grande falta de repetibilidade em termos de eficiência de separação. As fases monolíticas apresentaram alto caráter apolar e seletividade metilênica adequada para separação de analitos apolares e aromáticos, como alquilbenzenos, alquilparabenos e hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos / Abstract: Capillary Electrochromatography (CEC) is a separation technique that matches the chromatographic selectivity of High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with the high efficiency of Capillary Electrophoresis (CE). The capillary column used in the separation is filled with a stationary phase, which can be particulate or monolithic. In this work, organic polymeric monoliths were prepared through in situ polymerization from the monomers octadecyl methacrylate (precursor and hydrophobic selector), ethylene dimethacrylate (cross-linking agent) and 2-acryloylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid (ionizable component), using different types of porogenic solvents, such as isoamyl alcohol, amyl alcohol, cyclohexanol and 1,4-butanediol, in the presence or absence of water. In the first step, the nature and proportion between the porogenic solvents were varied and, in the second, the same occurred with the proportion between the set of monomers and porogenic solvents. The stationary phases were characterized by physical techniques such as scanning electron microscopy and porosimetry; and the columns prepared with the monolithic material were evaluated through the CEC technique. The columns presented efficiencies in the range of 3000 to 50000 plates m. Analysis of the nitrogen adsorption and desorption isotherms and the pore distribution curves enable affirming that the synthesized monolithic material is essentially micro- and mesoporous. The macropores for the flow of the mobile phase were clearly observed in images of scanning electron microscopy. So, the monolithic phases have three types of pores: micro-, meso- and macropores. In the second part of this work, the repeatability of synthesis of the monolithic phases was evaluated and a lack of repeatability related to separation efficiency was noted. The monolithic phases had high apolar character and adequate methylenic selectivity for separation of apolar and aromatic analytes, such as alkylbenzenes, alkylparabens and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons / Mestrado / Quimica Analitica / Mestre em Química

Capillary electrochromatography (CEC) is a major capillary electrophoresis (CE) mode that have been interfaced to mass spectrometry (MS) for sensitive and selective analysis of chiral compounds. This research expands CEC applications in cancer biomarker and chiral CE analysis. Chapter 1 is a review of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS), and capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry (CE/MS) for analysis of metabolites in prostate cancer diagnostics and therapies. In this chapter, a literature survey was performed within the databases PubMed, 4 Caplus/Webline and Web of Sciences. A total 17 studies reporting on various analytical platforms for metabolite identification in prostate cancer research, which often include case-control comparison were identified and reviewed. Chapter 2 described the analysis of metabolite biomarkers in prostate cancer tissues by capillary electrochromatography mass spectrometry. In this chapter, a capillary CEC–MS/MS method was developed for the simultaneous determination and separation of eight proofs of concept (POC) metabolites (betaine, malate, proline, N-acetyl aspartate, N-acetylglucosamine, uracil, xanthine, and alanine) as potential prostate cancer diagnostic markers. A polymeric monolith column with a hydrophilic crosslinker and strong anion-exchange mixed-mode has been fabricated by an in situ copolymerization of vinyl benzyl trimethylammonium chloride, and bisphenol A glycerolate dimethacrylate (BisGMA) in the presence of methanol and dodecyl alcohol as porogens and AIBN as initiator. After CEC separation, samples were analyzed by a triple–quadrupole mass spectrometer operated in positive ion mode. After optimization, the data showed that the CEC-MS/MS method using monolithic column achieved a much better chromatographic selectivity compared to coated columns and increased sensitivity than bare fused silica column The effect of mobile phase pH, ACN percentage and additive were studies. Under the optimum mobile phase conditions, this method was carried out to separate and detect eight metabolites in the biopsy sample. The LOD for the metabolites is between 50nM-100nM. This method has successfully used to examine patients’ prostate cancer with an accuracy of 95%. Chapter 3 demonstrates Insights into Chiral Recognition Mechanisms in CEC using linear salvation energy relationship. By varying the linker (amide and carbamate), head group (alanine, leucine, and valine) and chain length (C8, C10 and C12) of the amino acid bound surfactants; monolithic column was made to ultimately understand the factors governing chiral stationary solid phase. Through the comparison of system parameters, we can see that surfactant head group, linker and chain length affect the separation of achiral and chiral compounds. Also, with the same type surfactant, data was presented to show how the trend of LSER parameters and how it affects separation between in CEC. This study showed the predictive capability of LSER to understand the aforementioned intermolecular processes controlling retention and by doing so, be able to quantitatively predict the experimental conditions to achieve an acceptable chiral separation.

<p>The thesis focuses on the development of new homogeneous gels for the separation of drug enantiomers, peptides, DNA and virus by electrophoresis and electrochromatography in capillaries and microchips. This type of separation media offers high resolution and small zone broadening. Compared to particulate beds the resolution in this type of separation media is high because the eddy diffusion is zero and the resistance to mass transfer is small, since the diffusional distance between two polymer chains in the gel is considerably shorter than that between two beads in a packed bed.</p><p>The gels have been characterized in terms of plate heights, plate numbers, resolution, etc. Gels of agarose, polyvinyl alcohol, albumin and polyacrylamide have been employed for electrochromatography or electrophoresis. <i>N,N’</i>-methylene-bisacrylamide, the most widely used crosslinker in polyacrylamide gels, was exchanged for allyl-β-cyclodextrin to get a multi-purpose gel, <i>i.e.,</i> a separation medium the separation properties of which is determined not only by the polyacrylamide chains, but also by β-cyclodextrin with its complexation power.</p><p>A cost-effective, hybrid microdevice has been designed for fast electrophoretic and electrochromatographic analyses as well as for microchromatography. It consists of a fused silica capillary mounted on a supporting plate which integrates most of the compartments necessary for automation and sensitive detection at short UV wavelengths.</p>

Analysis of biological samples can be a difficult task. This thesis covers a broad aspect of the analytical areas of capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary electrochromatography (CEC) in combination with mass spectrometry (MS) that are of great importance for achieving fast, accurate and sensitive bioanalyses. A significantly time reduced and automated system for sample cleanup was developed to greatly simplify the pretreatment process of biological samples with a complex matrix. Desalting and preconcentration of species in urine was conducted and the limit of detection for the antidepressant escitalopram was lowered 10 times. This extraction devise was also successfully incorporated in a chip based platform for the possibility to be a part of multidimensional separation systems. The reduced risk of sample loss leads to improved detection limits, which are usually one the most challenging parts when working with bioanalyses. In the area of separation, a monomer surface with tailored hydrophobicity was developed to achieve rapid, high efficient separations of complex mixtures. Within five minutes a tryptic digest of a protein could be separated and then identified by a Mascot search. The applications addressed have been focused on medical conditions which are of highest interest for both physicians and patients. A high throughput analysis of the kynurenine metabolites with CE-MS offers a new method to rapidly examine samples from patients with neurological disorders. A screening study of possible biomarkers for the two different types of appendicitis, gangraenous and phlegmonous was conducted. Indicative patterns were found for both pre and post surgery of the two types of inflammation as well as between them. The divergences were traced back to the MS peaks obtained in the CE- and CEC-MS setups as possible biomarkers for the two forms of appendicitis. A preliminary study of polycystic ovary syndrome also offered some valuable results for future biomarker identification.

The thesis focuses on the development of new homogeneous gels for the separation of drug enantiomers, peptides, DNA and virus by electrophoresis and electrochromatography in capillaries and microchips. This type of separation media offers high resolution and small zone broadening. Compared to particulate beds the resolution in this type of separation media is high because the eddy diffusion is zero and the resistance to mass transfer is small, since the diffusional distance between two polymer chains in the gel is considerably shorter than that between two beads in a packed bed. The gels have been characterized in terms of plate heights, plate numbers, resolution, etc. Gels of agarose, polyvinyl alcohol, albumin and polyacrylamide have been employed for electrochromatography or electrophoresis. N,N’-methylene-bisacrylamide, the most widely used crosslinker in polyacrylamide gels, was exchanged for allyl-β-cyclodextrin to get a multi-purpose gel, i.e., a separation medium the separation properties of which is determined not only by the polyacrylamide chains, but also by β-cyclodextrin with its complexation power. A cost-effective, hybrid microdevice has been designed for fast electrophoretic and electrochromatographic analyses as well as for microchromatography. It consists of a fused silica capillary mounted on a supporting plate which integrates most of the compartments necessary for automation and sensitive detection at short UV wavelengths.

The research presented in this dissertation involves the development of chiral and achiral analysis using capillary electrochromatography (CEC) and CEC coupled to mass spectrometry (CEC-MS). Chapter 1 briefly reviews CEC fundamentals and latest development on chiral CEC and CEC-MS. The CEC-UV enantioseparations for several acidic compounds are described in Chapter 2. The optimum resolutions for these acidic enantiomers are achieved in ion-suppression mode, i.e. with an acidic mobile phase. One of major drawback in coupling CEC with MS is the bubble formation at the column outlet end, resulting in irreproducible retention time and erratic baseline, or even current breakdown. By introducing internal tapered columns, the aforementioned limitations of CEC-MS are successfully overcome in Chapter 3. The CEC-MS enantioseparation of warfarin and coumachlor is carefully investigated and applied to quantify R- and S-warfarin in human plasma. For individual enantiomers, a concentration of 25 ng/mL is detectable. To further improve the robustness of CEC-MS column, a new procedure of fabricating internal tapered columns is reported in Chapter 4. These internal tapered columns demonstrate excellent ruggedness, low background noise, and good compatibility in reversed-phase and polar organic modes of CEC-MS. In chapter 5, the feasibility of using internal tapered columns packed with vancomycin chiral stationary phase (CSP) is explored for simultaneous enantioseparation of eight â-blockers using CEC-MS. After a careful optimization of the mobile phase composition, sheath liquid and spray chamber parameter, 15 out of 16 enantiomers could be simultaneously resolved with excellent efficiency and detection sensitivity. The synthesis and characterization of sulfated and sulfonated cellulose phenylcarbamate CSPs is described in Chapter 6. The use of these CSPs, especially the sulfonated one, significantly enhances the EOF profile and sample throughput but maintain high enantiomeric resolving power under various modes of CEC and CEC-MS. By combining CEC and atmospheric pressure photo-ionization (APPI) MS, Chapter 7 demonstrates the separation and detection of mono-methylated benzo[a]pyrene (MBAP) isomers with ~100 times enhancement on detection sensitivity than CEC-UV. In Appedix 2, monolithic columns are synthesized through photopolymerized sol-gel approach and utilized for CEC and CEC-APPI-MS of polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and alkyl phenyl ketones.