Staphylococcus aureus is a gram-positive opportunistic pathogen responsible for more deaths every year than HIV/AIDS. Its formidable repertoire of virulence factors, ubiquitous nature, and ability to acquire antibiotic resistance quickly allow S. aureus to colonize and persist in nearly any body site if given the opportunity. S. aureus is the leading cause of many common and severe skin diseases, i.e. atopic dermatitis and surgical site infections, which can result in significant morbidity and mortality due to lack of available treatments and chronic non-healing nature of each infection. The human body is capable of producing many antimicrobial factors, such as defensins in the epidermis, in conjunction with providing a seamless barrier to many environmental threats, i.e. the skin, yet when given the opportunity, S. aureus can overtake these innate defenses, colonize, and cause disease. Despite S. aureus being a prominent organism in skin infections, little has been done to identify critical factors of S. aureus to cause skin infections. This document demonstrates the capacity of specific S. aureus virulence factors, superantigens and cytotoxins, to alter re-epithelialization and wound healing, as indicated by altered keratinocyte migration and proliferation. In an attempt to harness natural occurring host defenses, we have also identified and generated novel antimicrobial peptides capable of ablating toxin production independent of bacterial growth inhibition. Evidence presented should convince the reader that S. aureus exotoxin production is critical in perpetuating chronic wounds through local keratinocyte interaction. This suggests targeting production of these toxins to prevent cell toxicity and inflammatory responses, could allow the host to repair damaged tissue effectively.

O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a expressão de genes envolvidos no transporte de monocarboxilatos (Mct1, Mct2, Mct3 e Mct4) e de genes específicos da oogênese (Bmp15, Gdf9 e Has2) em complexos cumulus-oócito (CCOs) selecionados pelo teste BCB. Após seleção morfológica com base no grau de compactação das células do cumulus (CCs) e no grau de homogeneidade do citoplasma, os CCOs foram corados com 26 μM BCB (azul cresil brilhante) por 90 min e divididos em dois grupos: BCB+, que apresentavam o ooplasma corado de azul, e BCB-, com ooplasma não corado. Foram utilizados dois grupos controles não expostos ao BCB: o grupo holding foi submetido às mesmas condições que os grupos corados e o outro grupo controle foi diretamente submetido à maturação in vitro (MIV), após a seleção morfológica dos CCOs. A expressão gênica relativa foi determinada por RT-PCR em CCOs coletados antes e ao final da maturação. A expressão também foi avaliada, separadamente, em oócitos desnudos (ODs) e células do cumulus (CCs) antes e após a maturação. A análise dos transcritos demonstrou que houve aumento significativo (p < 0,05) na expressão relativa de Gdf9 e Bmp15 nos grupos BCB+, BCB- e holding antes da MIV, enquanto Has2 teve aumento significativo (p < 0,01) após a MIV apenas no grupo controle. Os outros genes analisados (Mct1, Mct2 e Mct4) mantiveram-se estáveis durante a maturação. O aumento na abundância relativa de alguns transcritos durante a MIV pode ser atribuído as condições de incubações durante o teste BCB. Nossos resultados demonstraram, pela primeira vez, a expressão de Mct1, 2 e 4 em CCOs bovinos. Enquanto o mRNA de Mct1 e Mct4 estava presente em ODs e em CC, o Mct2 foi detectado somente em CCs. Não detectamos a expressão de transcritos de Mct3 em CCOs. As diferenças na expressão dessas três isoformas sugerem um papel único para esses transportadores durante a maturação. / The aim of this study was to determine the relative expression of genes involved in transport of monocarboxylates (Mct1, Mct2, Mct3 e Mct4) and oogenesis specific genes (Bmp15, Gdf9 and Has2) in immature and mature bovine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COC) after selection by BCB. Immature COCs underwent morphological selection and were stained with 26 mM BCB for 90 min. Based on ooplasm staining, oocytes were distributed in two groups BCB+ (blue color) and BCB- (non-stained). The holding control group was exposed to the same incubation conditions as stained COCs, but without BCB. Control group was submitted to in vitro maturation (IVM) immediately after morphological selection. mRNA expression was investigated by RT-PCR in COCs before and after IVM. No relationship was observed in the relative expression of Has2, Gdf9, Bmp15 or Mct1, 2 and 4 transcripts between BCB- and BCB+ COCs. Transcripts analysis showed that Gdf9 and Bmp15 in BCB+, BCB- and holding groups were upregulated (p < 0.05) before IVM, while Has2 was up-regulated (p < 0.01) after IVM in the control group. Others genes remained stable during maturation (Mct1, 2 and 4). The increase in relative abundance of some transcripts during IVM may be attributed to incubation conditions during the BCB test. Our results showed, for the first time, Mct1, 2 and 4 expression in bovine COCs. Mct1 and Mct4 transcripts were present in denuded oocytes and cumulus cell, while Mct2 was detected only in cumulus cells. These differences between the three isoforms in localization suggest unique roles for each in monocarboxylate transport during maturation.

O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a expressão de genes envolvidos no transporte de monocarboxilatos (Mct1, Mct2, Mct3 e Mct4) e de genes específicos da oogênese (Bmp15, Gdf9 e Has2) em complexos cumulus-oócito (CCOs) selecionados pelo teste BCB. Após seleção morfológica com base no grau de compactação das células do cumulus (CCs) e no grau de homogeneidade do citoplasma, os CCOs foram corados com 26 μM BCB (azul cresil brilhante) por 90 min e divididos em dois grupos: BCB+, que apresentavam o ooplasma corado de azul, e BCB-, com ooplasma não corado. Foram utilizados dois grupos controles não expostos ao BCB: o grupo holding foi submetido às mesmas condições que os grupos corados e o outro grupo controle foi diretamente submetido à maturação in vitro (MIV), após a seleção morfológica dos CCOs. A expressão gênica relativa foi determinada por RT-PCR em CCOs coletados antes e ao final da maturação. A expressão também foi avaliada, separadamente, em oócitos desnudos (ODs) e células do cumulus (CCs) antes e após a maturação. A análise dos transcritos demonstrou que houve aumento significativo (p < 0,05) na expressão relativa de Gdf9 e Bmp15 nos grupos BCB+, BCB- e holding antes da MIV, enquanto Has2 teve aumento significativo (p < 0,01) após a MIV apenas no grupo controle. Os outros genes analisados (Mct1, Mct2 e Mct4) mantiveram-se estáveis durante a maturação. O aumento na abundância relativa de alguns transcritos durante a MIV pode ser atribuído as condições de incubações durante o teste BCB. Nossos resultados demonstraram, pela primeira vez, a expressão de Mct1, 2 e 4 em CCOs bovinos. Enquanto o mRNA de Mct1 e Mct4 estava presente em ODs e em CC, o Mct2 foi detectado somente em CCs. Não detectamos a expressão de transcritos de Mct3 em CCOs. As diferenças na expressão dessas três isoformas sugerem um papel único para esses transportadores durante a maturação. / The aim of this study was to determine the relative expression of genes involved in transport of monocarboxylates (Mct1, Mct2, Mct3 e Mct4) and oogenesis specific genes (Bmp15, Gdf9 and Has2) in immature and mature bovine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COC) after selection by BCB. Immature COCs underwent morphological selection and were stained with 26 mM BCB for 90 min. Based on ooplasm staining, oocytes were distributed in two groups BCB+ (blue color) and BCB- (non-stained). The holding control group was exposed to the same incubation conditions as stained COCs, but without BCB. Control group was submitted to in vitro maturation (IVM) immediately after morphological selection. mRNA expression was investigated by RT-PCR in COCs before and after IVM. No relationship was observed in the relative expression of Has2, Gdf9, Bmp15 or Mct1, 2 and 4 transcripts between BCB- and BCB+ COCs. Transcripts analysis showed that Gdf9 and Bmp15 in BCB+, BCB- and holding groups were upregulated (p < 0.05) before IVM, while Has2 was up-regulated (p < 0.01) after IVM in the control group. Others genes remained stable during maturation (Mct1, 2 and 4). The increase in relative abundance of some transcripts during IVM may be attributed to incubation conditions during the BCB test. Our results showed, for the first time, Mct1, 2 and 4 expression in bovine COCs. Mct1 and Mct4 transcripts were present in denuded oocytes and cumulus cell, while Mct2 was detected only in cumulus cells. These differences between the three isoforms in localization suggest unique roles for each in monocarboxylate transport during maturation.

O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a expressão de genes envolvidos no transporte de monocarboxilatos (Mct1, Mct2, Mct3 e Mct4) e de genes específicos da oogênese (Bmp15, Gdf9 e Has2) em complexos cumulus-oócito (CCOs) selecionados pelo teste BCB. Após seleção morfológica com base no grau de compactação das células do cumulus (CCs) e no grau de homogeneidade do citoplasma, os CCOs foram corados com 26 μM BCB (azul cresil brilhante) por 90 min e divididos em dois grupos: BCB+, que apresentavam o ooplasma corado de azul, e BCB-, com ooplasma não corado. Foram utilizados dois grupos controles não expostos ao BCB: o grupo holding foi submetido às mesmas condições que os grupos corados e o outro grupo controle foi diretamente submetido à maturação in vitro (MIV), após a seleção morfológica dos CCOs. A expressão gênica relativa foi determinada por RT-PCR em CCOs coletados antes e ao final da maturação. A expressão também foi avaliada, separadamente, em oócitos desnudos (ODs) e células do cumulus (CCs) antes e após a maturação. A análise dos transcritos demonstrou que houve aumento significativo (p < 0,05) na expressão relativa de Gdf9 e Bmp15 nos grupos BCB+, BCB- e holding antes da MIV, enquanto Has2 teve aumento significativo (p < 0,01) após a MIV apenas no grupo controle. Os outros genes analisados (Mct1, Mct2 e Mct4) mantiveram-se estáveis durante a maturação. O aumento na abundância relativa de alguns transcritos durante a MIV pode ser atribuído as condições de incubações durante o teste BCB. Nossos resultados demonstraram, pela primeira vez, a expressão de Mct1, 2 e 4 em CCOs bovinos. Enquanto o mRNA de Mct1 e Mct4 estava presente em ODs e em CC, o Mct2 foi detectado somente em CCs. Não detectamos a expressão de transcritos de Mct3 em CCOs. As diferenças na expressão dessas três isoformas sugerem um papel único para esses transportadores durante a maturação. / The aim of this study was to determine the relative expression of genes involved in transport of monocarboxylates (Mct1, Mct2, Mct3 e Mct4) and oogenesis specific genes (Bmp15, Gdf9 and Has2) in immature and mature bovine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COC) after selection by BCB. Immature COCs underwent morphological selection and were stained with 26 mM BCB for 90 min. Based on ooplasm staining, oocytes were distributed in two groups BCB+ (blue color) and BCB- (non-stained). The holding control group was exposed to the same incubation conditions as stained COCs, but without BCB. Control group was submitted to in vitro maturation (IVM) immediately after morphological selection. mRNA expression was investigated by RT-PCR in COCs before and after IVM. No relationship was observed in the relative expression of Has2, Gdf9, Bmp15 or Mct1, 2 and 4 transcripts between BCB- and BCB+ COCs. Transcripts analysis showed that Gdf9 and Bmp15 in BCB+, BCB- and holding groups were upregulated (p < 0.05) before IVM, while Has2 was up-regulated (p < 0.01) after IVM in the control group. Others genes remained stable during maturation (Mct1, 2 and 4). The increase in relative abundance of some transcripts during IVM may be attributed to incubation conditions during the BCB test. Our results showed, for the first time, Mct1, 2 and 4 expression in bovine COCs. Mct1 and Mct4 transcripts were present in denuded oocytes and cumulus cell, while Mct2 was detected only in cumulus cells. These differences between the three isoforms in localization suggest unique roles for each in monocarboxylate transport during maturation.

Skeletal muscle injuries and muscle degenerative diseases pose significant challenges to the healthcare. Surgical interventions are restricted due to tissue availability, donor site morbidity and alterations to tissue biomechanics. Current cell-based therapies are hindered by low survival and long-term engraftment for the transplanted cells due to the lack of appropriate supportive microenvironment (cell niche) in the injured muscle. Therefore, there is a critical need for developing strategies that provide cellular and structural support in the regeneration of functional muscle. In the present work, a bioengineered cell niche mimicking the native skeletal muscle microenvironment has been developed for skeletal muscle regenerative engineering. It is hypothesized that the bioengineered scaffolds with appropriate structural and cell instructive properties will support myoblast alignment and function, as well as promote the myogenic responses in clinically relevant skeletal muscle injuries. The current work utilized a three-pronged approach to design biomaterial scaffolds to aid in skeletal muscle regeneration. In the first part, aligned poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) fiber scaffolds mimicking the oriented muscle fiber microenvironment with fiber diameters of 335±154 nm (nanoscale), 1352±225 nm (microscale) and 3013±531 nm (microscale) were fabricated and characterized. Myoblasts were found to respond to fiber diameter as observed from the differences in cell alignment, cell elongation, cell spreading area, proliferation and differentiation. <i>In vivo</i> study demonstrated the potential of using microscale fiber scaffolds to improve myogenic potential in the <i>mdx</i> mouse model. In the second part, we designed, synthesized, and characterized an implantable glycosaminoglycan-based composite hydrogel consisting of hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate and polyethylene glycol (HA-CS) with tailored structural and mechanical properties for skeletal muscle regeneration applications. We demonstrated that HA-CS hydrogels provided a suitable microenvironment for <i>in vitro</i> myoblast proliferation and differentiation. Furthermore, <i>in vivo</i> studies using a volumetric muscle loss model in the mouse quadriceps showed that HA-CS hydrogels integrated with the surrounding host tissue and facilitated <i>de novo</i> myofiber generation, angiogenesis, nerve innervation and minimized scar tissue formation. In the third part, we investigated the effects of PC12 secreted signaling factors in modulating C2C12 myoblast behavior. We showed that PC12 conditioned media modulated myoblast proliferation and differentiation in both 2D culture and 3D aligned electrospun fiber scaffold system in a dose dependent manner. We also demonstrated the biomimetic HA-CS hydrogel system enabled 3D encapsulation of PC12 cells secreting signaling factors and promoted survival and proliferation of myoblasts in co-culture. Further proteomics analysis identified a total of 2088 protein/peptides from the secretome of the encapsulated PC12 cells and revealed the biological role and overlapping functions of nerve secreted proteins for skeletal muscle regeneration, potentially through regulating myoblast behavior, nerve function, and angiogenesis. These set of experiments not only provide critical insight on exploiting the interactions between muscle cells and their microenvironment, but they also open new avenues for developing advanced bioengineered scaffolds for regenerative engineering of skeletal muscle tissues.<br>

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