INTRODUÇÃO: nos recém-nascidos, diversos componentes das defesas antioxidantes têm se mostrado deficientes. A bilirrubina possui potente ação antioxidante podendo compensar a deficiência dos demais componentes. Essa ação é potencializada pela biliverdina redutase. Esse estudo teve como objetivo identificar o efeito protetor da bilirrubina sobre a sepse neonatal em recém nascidos prematuros. MÉTODOS: estudo de coorte realizado em duas UTI neonatais. Participaram recém-nascidos com idade gestacional inferior a 36 semanas e peso de nascimento entre 750 e 1750 g. As determinações da bilirrubina e da carbonil proteína fizeram-se: a) ao nascimento b) com três dias c) com sete dias e d) com 14 dias de vida. Utilizou-se o teste t de Student nas comparações entre médias. Com as medidas de bilirrubina com três dias foi construída curva ROC. O ponto de inflexão dessa curva separou um grupo exposto a níveis altos de outro (controle) com níveis baixos de bilirrubina. Determinou-se Risco Relativo e intervalo de confiança de 95%. Para variáveis categóricas, utilizou-se o teste do Qui quadrado. A significância estatística foi α=5%. RESULTADOS: o estudo incluiu 53 pacientes. Sepse foi confirmada por hemocultura em 24 pacientes (45,3%). Foram 12 (22,6%) os pacientes com sepse clínica perfazendo 36 (67,9%) pacientes com todas formas de sepse. Sepse grave foi diagnosticada em 21 pacientes (39,6%). Nas comparações entre os valores de bilirrubina nos pacientes que apresentaram cada uma das três formas de sepse e nos pacientes sem sepse houve diferença significante na maioria das situações. Não houve diferença significante nas medidas ao nascimento em todas as formas de sepse e nas medidas aos 14 dias para os pacientes com sepse grave. Ótimos resultados estatísticos ocorreram nas comparações com três dias de vida entre pacientes com sepse comprovada e pacientes sem sepse com p= 0,0009. O ponto de inflexão da curva ROC, com bilirrubina em 9,8mg% separou os pacientes em grupo exposto e não exposto. Comparação quanto à presença ou não de sepse entre os grupos mostrou diferença estatisticamente significante, considerando-se cada uma das formas de sepse analisadas. Para sepse confirmada encontrou-se RR=0,39 (IC95% 0,22- 0,71) e p=0,0008. Nas curvas padrão para bilirrubina, houve diferença significante entre as áreas das duas curvas, com os pacientes sem sepse apresentando área maior. A correlação entre os valores máximos de bilirrubina e os valores máximos da carbonil proteína foi inversa e estatisticamente significante (p=0,016). A diferença entre os valores da carbonil proteína nos pacientes com cada uma das formas de sepse analisadas e os dos pacientes sem sepse, não atingiu significância estatística. O conjunto dos resultados do estudo mostra uma relação estatisticamente significante entre níveis mais elevados de bilirrubina e menor incidência e gravidade da sepse neonatal e uma correlação significante entre bilirrubina e carbonil proteína. CONCLUSÃO: maiores níveis séricos de bilirrubina protegem os prematuros da ocorrência e gravidade da sepse devido as suas propriedades antioxidantes. / INTRODUCTION: several components of the antioxidative defenses are deficient in the newborn. Bilirubin is a potent antioxidant and can counterbalance the deficiency of those components. This antioxidant action is potencialized by biliverdin reductase. The present study aimed at identifying the protective effect of bilirubin on neonatal sepsis in premature babies. METHODS: cohort study, carried out in two neonatal intensive care unities. Newborns younger than 36 gestational age weeks and birth weight between 750 and 1750g were included in the study. Bilirubin and protein carbonyl measurements were performed: a) at birth, b) at day three, c) at day seven, d) at day fourteen. Student t test was used for mean comparisons. Bilirubin measurements at day three were used to build a ROC curve. The inflection point of this curve separated the high bilirubin from the low bilirubin group. Relative risk and 95% confidence interval were determined. Chi-square test was applied for categorical variables and the significance level was set at α=5%. RESULTS: fifty-three patients were included in the study. Twenty-four patients (45.3%) had proven sepsis, twelve (22.6%) had clinical sepsis, totaling 36 (67.9%) patients with all forms of sepsis and 21 (39.6%) patients with severe sepsis. Comparisons between bilirubin values in patients with each form of sepsis and patients without sepsis showed significant differences in most of the situations. There was no statistically significant difference in birth measures in all forms of sepsis as well as in day 14 measurements for severe sepsis. Very good statistical results were found on day three comparisons between proven sepsis and no sepsis patients p=0.0009. The ROC curve inflection point, with bilirubin level at 9.8 mg%, identified an exposed and a non-exposed group. Comparisons regarding the presence of sepsis between groups showed a statistically significant difference, considering each of the analyzed sepsis forms. For proven sepsis RR=0.39 (95%CI 0.22-0.71) p=0.0008. Bilirubin curves showed a significant difference between the areas of the two curves, with patients without sepsis displaying a larger area. The correlation between bilirubin maximum values and protein carbonyl maximum values was inverse and significant (p=0.016). The difference regarding protein carbonyl values between patients with each form of sepsis and patients without sepsis did not reach statistical significance. These results show a statistical significant relation between higher bilirubin levels and a lower incidence and severity of neonatal sepsis and a significant correlation between bilirubin and protein carbonyl. CONCLUSION: higher bilirubin levels protect premature babies from the occurrence and severity of sepsis due to its antioxidative properties.

O presente estudo tem por objetivo principal avaliar as alterações funcionais precoces de mitocôndrias hepáticas de ratos wistar submetidos ao estímulo de sepse através da técnica de ligadura cecal e punção (cecal ligation and puncture-CLP) e indução de tolerância ao lipopolissacarídeo (LPS) de Escherichia coli. As mitocôndrias exercem papel na alteração do metabolismo celular de pacientes sépticos. Os objetivos do presente trabalho foram: (1) padronizar a técnica de indução a tolerância para ratos wistar com LPS de E. coli (2) avaliar a função mitocondrial fosforilativa e oxidativa; (3) quantificar DNA mitocondrial em tecido hepático de animais submetidos à CPL e tolerância; (4) verificar a expressão dos genes responsáveis pela biogênese mitocondrial e replicação do DNA mitocondrial: nuclear respiratory factor (NRF-1), mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM) e peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1alfa); (5) avaliar a função dos complexos respiratórios I e IV. Os resultados encontrados no presente estudo revelaram que: (a) a taxa de mortalidade dos animais submetidos a tolerância foi de 10% quando submetidos à dose letal de LPS, enquanto a taxa de mortalidade dos animais controle foi de 100% quando submetidos à dose letal de LPS; (b) observou-se que o grupo do controle respiratório que recebeu doses controladas de LPS e foi submetido à CLP apresentou razão igual ao grupo Controle, sugerindo que a fosforilação oxidativa se manteve igual ao basal, enquanto o grupo que foi submetido ao procedimento de CLP sem indução a tolerância apresentou piora da razão do controle respiratório em relação ao grupo controle; (c) a quantificação de DNA mitocondrial mostrou-se maior nos animais submetidos a CLP sem prévia indução a tolerância, com igual aumento da expressão dos fatores de biogênese mitocondrial em relação aos demais grupos; (d) houve diferença significativa na avaliação da funcionalidade dos complexo I, porém o complexo IV se manteve igual em todos os grupos. Concluiu-se que a indução a tolerância altera positivamente a função mitocondrial em animais submetidos à CLP / The aim of this study was to evaluate the early functional alterations of hepatic mitochondria of wistar rats submitted to the stimulation of sepsis through the technique of cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) and induction of tolerance to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of Escherichia coli. Mitochondria play a role in altering the cellular metabolism of septic patients. The objectives of the present study were: (1) to standardize the tolerance induction technique for wistar rats with E. coli LPS (2) to evaluate the mitochondrial phosphorylation and oxidative function; (3) quantify mitochondrial DNA in hepatic tissue of animals submitted to CPL and tolerance; (4) to verify the expression of genes responsible for mitochondria biogenesis and mitochondrial DNA replication nuclear mitochondrial biogenesis (NRF-1), mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1alpha); (5) to evaluate the function of respiratory complexes I and IV. The results found in the present study revealed that: (a) the mortality rate of the animals submitted to tolerance was 10% when submitted to the lethal dose of LPS, whereas the mortality rate of the control animals was 100% when submitted to the lethal dose of LPS; (B) it was observed that the group receiving controlled doses of LPS and submitted to CLP presented a ratio equal to the control group, suggesting that oxidative phosphorylation remained the same at baseline, whereas the group that underwent CLP procedure without induction of tolerance presented worsening of the respiratory control ratio in relation to the control group; (C) the mitochondrial DNA quantification was higher in the animals submitted to CLP without prior tolerance induction, with an equal increase in mitochondrial biogenesis factors expression in relation to the other groups; (D) there was significant difference in the evaluation of the functionality of complexes I, but no difference in complex IV in all groups. It was concluded that induction of tolerance positively alters mitochondrial function in animals submitted to CLP

Em alguns casos, pacientes que sobreviveram a uma sepse grave podem desenvolver um quadro de imunossupressão, caracterizado pela expansão dos linfócitos T reguladores (Tregs). Porém, apesar de inúmeros avanços, os mecanismos associados à expansão das Tregs, ainda não estão completamente esclarecidos. Nesse sentido, trabalhos recentes demonstraram que a atividade da enzima Indoleamina 2,3-Dioxigenase (IDO), responsável pela formação da quinurenina a partir da degradação do aminoácido essencial triptofano, está relacionada à diferenciação das Tregs e com o desenvolvimento de um quadro de tolerância. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi investigar o papel da IDO no desenvolvimento da imunossupressão induzida pela sepse. Os resultados demonstraram um aumento da expressão proteica e da atividade enzimática da IDO no baço de camundongos que sobreviveram à sepse grave. Para avaliar o desenvolvimento da imunossupressão, os camundongos foram desafiados com células do melanoma B16-F10. A inibição farmacológica da IDO promoveu redução do crescimento tumoral nos camundongos que sobreviveram à sepse, por um mecanismo dependente da redução na diferenciação das Tregs e das células C11b+ Ly6G+ no baço e da ativação de células CD8+ produtoras de IFN- ?, no linfonodo drenate da região tumoral. Adicionalmente, foi demonstrado que, o receptor de hidrocarbonetos de arila (AhR) está associado ao aumento da expressão da IDO, nos camundongos que sobreviveram à sepse. Ainda, os resultados demonstraram que células CD11C+ são as principais responsáveis por expressar a IDO no baço de camundongos que sobreviveram à sepse. Por fim, células CD11C+ isoladas do baço de camundongos que sobreviveram a sepse, foram mais efetivas em induzir a diferenciação das Tregs quando comparadas a células CD11C+ provenientes de camundongos naive. Em conjunto, os resultados sugerem que a ativação do AhR pela quinurenina é importante para expressão da IDO nas células CD11C+ encontradas no baço de camundongos que sobreviveram à sepse, o que por sua vez, está associado com a expansão das Tregs e com o desenvolvimento do quadro de imunossupressão. / Immunosuppression has been shown to be one long-term sequels of severe sepsis, which is mainly characterized by the expansion of regulatory T cells (Tregs). However, the mechanisms underlying Tregs expansion after sepsis remain poor understood. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), an enzyme that initiates the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan degradation, has been implicated in promoting Tregs generation. Therefore, we propose to investigate the role of IDO in the development of sepsis-induced immunosuppression. The results presented here demonstrated that there is an increase in both IDO protein expression and IDO enzymatic activity in spleen of sepsis-surviving mice. Employing a melanoma mouse model as a second challenge in sepsis-surviving mice, we found that pharmacological inhibition of IDO suppressed the enhanced tumor growth observed in sepsis-surviving mice. Importantly, inhibition of IDO decreased the expansion of Tregs in sepsis-surviving mice, leading to reduced CD11b+ Ly6G+ cells frequency in spleen and activation of INF-? production by CD8+ in draining lymph, after tumor challenge. Moreover, the results suggest that aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is associated with increased IDO expression found in sepsis-surviving mice. Furthermore, we identified that a CD11C+ population of cells are expressing IDO in spleen of sepsis surviving mice. In addition, CD11C+ cells isolated from spleen of sepsis-surviving mice, presented a higher capacity to induce a regulatory phenotype in naïve CD4+ CD25- T than CD11C+ isolated from naïve mice. Taken together, our results suggest that AhR activation by kynurenine during acute phase of sepsis is important to IDO expression in a specific CD11C+. This new sepsis-induced CD11C+ IDO+ population is important to Treg cells expansion and immunosuppression development in sepsis-surviving mice.

INTRODUÇÃO: nos recém-nascidos, diversos componentes das defesas antioxidantes têm se mostrado deficientes. A bilirrubina possui potente ação antioxidante podendo compensar a deficiência dos demais componentes. Essa ação é potencializada pela biliverdina redutase. Esse estudo teve como objetivo identificar o efeito protetor da bilirrubina sobre a sepse neonatal em recém nascidos prematuros. MÉTODOS: estudo de coorte realizado em duas UTI neonatais. Participaram recém-nascidos com idade gestacional inferior a 36 semanas e peso de nascimento entre 750 e 1750 g. As determinações da bilirrubina e da carbonil proteína fizeram-se: a) ao nascimento b) com três dias c) com sete dias e d) com 14 dias de vida. Utilizou-se o teste t de Student nas comparações entre médias. Com as medidas de bilirrubina com três dias foi construída curva ROC. O ponto de inflexão dessa curva separou um grupo exposto a níveis altos de outro (controle) com níveis baixos de bilirrubina. Determinou-se Risco Relativo e intervalo de confiança de 95%. Para variáveis categóricas, utilizou-se o teste do Qui quadrado. A significância estatística foi α=5%. RESULTADOS: o estudo incluiu 53 pacientes. Sepse foi confirmada por hemocultura em 24 pacientes (45,3%). Foram 12 (22,6%) os pacientes com sepse clínica perfazendo 36 (67,9%) pacientes com todas formas de sepse. Sepse grave foi diagnosticada em 21 pacientes (39,6%). Nas comparações entre os valores de bilirrubina nos pacientes que apresentaram cada uma das três formas de sepse e nos pacientes sem sepse houve diferença significante na maioria das situações. Não houve diferença significante nas medidas ao nascimento em todas as formas de sepse e nas medidas aos 14 dias para os pacientes com sepse grave. Ótimos resultados estatísticos ocorreram nas comparações com três dias de vida entre pacientes com sepse comprovada e pacientes sem sepse com p= 0,0009. O ponto de inflexão da curva ROC, com bilirrubina em 9,8mg% separou os pacientes em grupo exposto e não exposto. Comparação quanto à presença ou não de sepse entre os grupos mostrou diferença estatisticamente significante, considerando-se cada uma das formas de sepse analisadas. Para sepse confirmada encontrou-se RR=0,39 (IC95% 0,22- 0,71) e p=0,0008. Nas curvas padrão para bilirrubina, houve diferença significante entre as áreas das duas curvas, com os pacientes sem sepse apresentando área maior. A correlação entre os valores máximos de bilirrubina e os valores máximos da carbonil proteína foi inversa e estatisticamente significante (p=0,016). A diferença entre os valores da carbonil proteína nos pacientes com cada uma das formas de sepse analisadas e os dos pacientes sem sepse, não atingiu significância estatística. O conjunto dos resultados do estudo mostra uma relação estatisticamente significante entre níveis mais elevados de bilirrubina e menor incidência e gravidade da sepse neonatal e uma correlação significante entre bilirrubina e carbonil proteína. CONCLUSÃO: maiores níveis séricos de bilirrubina protegem os prematuros da ocorrência e gravidade da sepse devido as suas propriedades antioxidantes. / INTRODUCTION: several components of the antioxidative defenses are deficient in the newborn. Bilirubin is a potent antioxidant and can counterbalance the deficiency of those components. This antioxidant action is potencialized by biliverdin reductase. The present study aimed at identifying the protective effect of bilirubin on neonatal sepsis in premature babies. METHODS: cohort study, carried out in two neonatal intensive care unities. Newborns younger than 36 gestational age weeks and birth weight between 750 and 1750g were included in the study. Bilirubin and protein carbonyl measurements were performed: a) at birth, b) at day three, c) at day seven, d) at day fourteen. Student t test was used for mean comparisons. Bilirubin measurements at day three were used to build a ROC curve. The inflection point of this curve separated the high bilirubin from the low bilirubin group. Relative risk and 95% confidence interval were determined. Chi-square test was applied for categorical variables and the significance level was set at α=5%. RESULTS: fifty-three patients were included in the study. Twenty-four patients (45.3%) had proven sepsis, twelve (22.6%) had clinical sepsis, totaling 36 (67.9%) patients with all forms of sepsis and 21 (39.6%) patients with severe sepsis. Comparisons between bilirubin values in patients with each form of sepsis and patients without sepsis showed significant differences in most of the situations. There was no statistically significant difference in birth measures in all forms of sepsis as well as in day 14 measurements for severe sepsis. Very good statistical results were found on day three comparisons between proven sepsis and no sepsis patients p=0.0009. The ROC curve inflection point, with bilirubin level at 9.8 mg%, identified an exposed and a non-exposed group. Comparisons regarding the presence of sepsis between groups showed a statistically significant difference, considering each of the analyzed sepsis forms. For proven sepsis RR=0.39 (95%CI 0.22-0.71) p=0.0008. Bilirubin curves showed a significant difference between the areas of the two curves, with patients without sepsis displaying a larger area. The correlation between bilirubin maximum values and protein carbonyl maximum values was inverse and significant (p=0.016). The difference regarding protein carbonyl values between patients with each form of sepsis and patients without sepsis did not reach statistical significance. These results show a statistical significant relation between higher bilirubin levels and a lower incidence and severity of neonatal sepsis and a significant correlation between bilirubin and protein carbonyl. CONCLUSION: higher bilirubin levels protect premature babies from the occurrence and severity of sepsis due to its antioxidative properties.

Em alguns casos, pacientes que sobreviveram a uma sepse grave podem desenvolver um quadro de imunossupressão, caracterizado pela expansão dos linfócitos T reguladores (Tregs). Porém, apesar de inúmeros avanços, os mecanismos associados à expansão das Tregs, ainda não estão completamente esclarecidos. Nesse sentido, trabalhos recentes demonstraram que a atividade da enzima Indoleamina 2,3-Dioxigenase (IDO), responsável pela formação da quinurenina a partir da degradação do aminoácido essencial triptofano, está relacionada à diferenciação das Tregs e com o desenvolvimento de um quadro de tolerância. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi investigar o papel da IDO no desenvolvimento da imunossupressão induzida pela sepse. Os resultados demonstraram um aumento da expressão proteica e da atividade enzimática da IDO no baço de camundongos que sobreviveram à sepse grave. Para avaliar o desenvolvimento da imunossupressão, os camundongos foram desafiados com células do melanoma B16-F10. A inibição farmacológica da IDO promoveu redução do crescimento tumoral nos camundongos que sobreviveram à sepse, por um mecanismo dependente da redução na diferenciação das Tregs e das células C11b+ Ly6G+ no baço e da ativação de células CD8+ produtoras de IFN- ?, no linfonodo drenate da região tumoral. Adicionalmente, foi demonstrado que, o receptor de hidrocarbonetos de arila (AhR) está associado ao aumento da expressão da IDO, nos camundongos que sobreviveram à sepse. Ainda, os resultados demonstraram que células CD11C+ são as principais responsáveis por expressar a IDO no baço de camundongos que sobreviveram à sepse. Por fim, células CD11C+ isoladas do baço de camundongos que sobreviveram a sepse, foram mais efetivas em induzir a diferenciação das Tregs quando comparadas a células CD11C+ provenientes de camundongos naive. Em conjunto, os resultados sugerem que a ativação do AhR pela quinurenina é importante para expressão da IDO nas células CD11C+ encontradas no baço de camundongos que sobreviveram à sepse, o que por sua vez, está associado com a expansão das Tregs e com o desenvolvimento do quadro de imunossupressão. / Immunosuppression has been shown to be one long-term sequels of severe sepsis, which is mainly characterized by the expansion of regulatory T cells (Tregs). However, the mechanisms underlying Tregs expansion after sepsis remain poor understood. Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), an enzyme that initiates the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan degradation, has been implicated in promoting Tregs generation. Therefore, we propose to investigate the role of IDO in the development of sepsis-induced immunosuppression. The results presented here demonstrated that there is an increase in both IDO protein expression and IDO enzymatic activity in spleen of sepsis-surviving mice. Employing a melanoma mouse model as a second challenge in sepsis-surviving mice, we found that pharmacological inhibition of IDO suppressed the enhanced tumor growth observed in sepsis-surviving mice. Importantly, inhibition of IDO decreased the expansion of Tregs in sepsis-surviving mice, leading to reduced CD11b+ Ly6G+ cells frequency in spleen and activation of INF-? production by CD8+ in draining lymph, after tumor challenge. Moreover, the results suggest that aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is associated with increased IDO expression found in sepsis-surviving mice. Furthermore, we identified that a CD11C+ population of cells are expressing IDO in spleen of sepsis surviving mice. In addition, CD11C+ cells isolated from spleen of sepsis-surviving mice, presented a higher capacity to induce a regulatory phenotype in naïve CD4+ CD25- T than CD11C+ isolated from naïve mice. Taken together, our results suggest that AhR activation by kynurenine during acute phase of sepsis is important to IDO expression in a specific CD11C+. This new sepsis-induced CD11C+ IDO+ population is important to Treg cells expansion and immunosuppression development in sepsis-surviving mice.

Sepsis is the most frequent cause of mortality in most intensive care units. Cardiovascular dysfunction is a major complication associated with sepsis, with high mortality rates up to 70%. Currently, there is no effective treatment approach for sepsis. The integrity of the endothelium is fundamental for the homeostasis of the cardiovascular system. Sepsis induces endothelial cell injury which is the key factor for multiple organ failure. The increased expression of adhesion molecules and chemokines in endothelial cell promotes leukocytes infiltration into the tissue. The loss of tight junction proteins and increased permeability of the endothelial cells will provoke tissue hypoxia and subsequent organ failure. Therefore, preservation of endothelial function is a critical approach for improving sepsis-induced outcome. Here, we showed that endothelial specific protein HSPA12B plays a critical role in the preservation of cardiovascular function in polymicrobial sepsis. HSPA12B is the newest member of HSP70 family which predominantly expresses in endothelial cells. We observed that HSPA12B deficiency (HSPA12B-/-) exaggerated polymicrobial sepsis-induced endothelial dysfunction, leading to worse cardiac dysfunction. HSPA12B-/- significantly increases the expression of adhesion molecules, decreases tight junction protein levels and enhances vascular permeability. HSPA12B-/- alsomarkedly promotes the infiltration of inflammatory cells into the myocardium and inflammatory cytokine production. We investigated the cardioprotective mechanisms of HSPA12B in sepsis induced cardiovascular dysfunction. Exosomes play a critical role in intercellular communication. Exosome is a natural vehicle of microRNAs. We found that exosomes isolated from HSPA12B-/- septic mice induced more expression of adhesion molecules in endothelial cells and inflammation in macrophages. Interestingly, the levels of miR-126 in serum exosomes isolated from HSPA12B-/- septic mice were significantly lowers than in WT septic mice. Importantly, delivery of miR-126 carried exosomes significantly improved cardiac function, suppressed the expression of adhesion molecules, reduced immune cell infiltration in the myocardium, and improved vascular permeability in HSPA12B-/- septic mice. The data suggests that HSPA12B is essential for endothelial function in sepsis and that miR-126 containing exosomes plays a critical role in cardiovascular-protective mechanisms of endothelial HSPA12B in polymicrobial sepsis.

Sepsis is a leading cause of death among critically ill patients that results in metabolic alterations including hypercatabolism, lipoatrophy, and muscle wasting, contributing to the development of cachexia. Septic cachexia is associated with loss of body weight, fat mass, and lean mass and dysregulated immune function. There are currently no efficacious treatment strategies for septic cachexia, and nutritional interventions have limited success in preventing hypercatabolic wasting. Pyocyanin is a virulence factor produced by sepsis-causing Pseudomonas aeruginosa that has been shown to activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), increase inflammation, and produce reactive oxygen species. Thus, pyocyanin represents a novel mechanistic target in the development of septic cachexia. In Aim 1, we hypothesized that pyocyanin reduces adipocyte differentiation and activates AhR in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, pyocyanin reduced differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells to adipocytes and promoted expression of proinflammatory cytokines. These effects were associated with activation of AhR. We established an in vivo model of pyocyanin-induced cachexia using repeat intraperitoneal exposure to pyocyanin in male and female C57BL/6J mice. Acutely, pyocyanin reduced differentiation of stem cells isolated from adipose stromal vascular tissue and augmented expression of proinflammatory cytokines. Chronically, pyocyanin reduced body weight and fat mass, which was associated with adipose-specific AhR activation. Pyocyanin had sexually dimorphic effects on lipolysis and adipocyte inflammation. These data suggest a role of pyocyanin in adipose cachexia associated with sepsis. In Aim 2, we hypothesized that pyocyanin activates adipocyte AhR to promote adipose tissue wasting and cachexia. To test this hypothesis, we used a mouse model of adipocyte-specific deficiency of AhR and chronically administered pyocyanin to male and female mice. In male mice with adipocyte AhR deficiency, effects of pyocyanin to promote adipose wasting and cachexia were attenuated. In contrast, female adipocyte AhR deficient mice had an augmented response to pyocyanin to decrease body weight. Results suggest divergent mechanisms of pyocyanin to regulate adiposity and body weight through adipocyte AhR between male and female mice. These data support a role for pyocyanin in the development of adipose cachexia associated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa sepsis that is partially regulated by adipocyte AhR. Targeting pyocyanin’s effects on adipocytes represents a potentially novel therapeutic approach for septic cachexia that could mitigate septic cachexia, a condition associated with increased risk of mortality in this population.

<p>Toxic products, such as endotoxin from the gram-negative and exotoxin from the gram-positive bacteria, are the most important initiators of the inflammatory host response in sepsis. In addition to antibacterial treatment, numerous attempts have been made to interfere with the exaggerated proinflammatory cascade initiated by the toxins. As most antitoxic and anti-inflammatory agents have shown no clear efficacy, an attractive alternative has been to prevent or minimise their release. Therefore, it was of interest to further study the antibiotic-induced release of toxins after exposure to antibiotics used for the treatment of the most severe infections, especially if protein synthesis inhibitors could reduce the release induced by PBP 3-specific β-lactam antibiotics.</p><p>There were significant reductions in endotoxin release from gram-negative bacteria when the combination of the PBP 3-specific β-lactam antibiotic, cefuroxime, and the protein synthesis inhibitor, tobramycin, was compared with cefuroxime alone. Increasing doses of tobramycin reduced endotoxin release and increased the killing rate. In a kinetic <i>in vitro</i> model the endotoxin release from <i>E.coli</i> was higher after the second dose of cefuroxime. Nevertheless, it was reduced after addition of tobramycin.</p><p>No binding of tobramycin to endotoxin was observed, either <i>in vivo</i> or <i>in vitro</i>. In a porcine sepsis model, a possible anti-inflammatory effect of ceftazidime and tobramycin, expressed as late cytokine inhibition, was seen.</p><p>The protein synthesis inhibitor, clindamycin, released less streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A (SpeA) from a group A streptococcus strain than penicillin, and addition of clindamycin to penicillin resulted in less toxin production than penicillin alone. The SpeA production was dependent on the bacterial number at the start of treatment. Higher doses of penicillin also led to less SpeA. </p><p>The choice of antibiotic class and dose may be important in the severely ill septic patient in whom an additional toxin release could be deleterious. A combination of a β-lactam antibiotic and a protein synthesis inhibitor seems beneficial but further investigations are needed.</p>

<p>In patients with sepsis, the activation of the cascade systems, for example the complement system with the generation of C5a, is followed by a state of immunosuppression with impaired bactericidal capacity caused by suppression of the neutrophil granulocytes. To inhibit the C5a-induced systemic inflammatory and the following anti-inflammatory responses, different anti-C5a strategies have been successful in experimental models of sepsis. In animals and in healthy volunteers after injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), an up-regulation of the C5a receptor (C5aR) has been reported. Before designing clinical studies, it was of importance to increase the knowledge of C5a and C5aR regulation in humans. </p><p>At the time when the diagnosis of severe sepsis or septic shock can be established clinically, granulocyte C5aR expression, analysed by flow cytometer, was shown to be reduced, whereas monocyte C5aR expression was unchanged. There was a correlation between granulocyte C5aR expression and the severity of disease, as measured by the APACHE II score. </p><p><i>Ex vivo</i> incubation of whole blood with LPS resulted in a reduction in granulocyte C5aR expression. Such a reduction was not found in isolated cells, indicating that the effect was mediated via plasma factors, such as C5a, IL-8 and TNF-α which all were shown to reduce C5aR expression <i>ex vivo</i>.</p><p>Although there was a trend between chemotaxis, as measured by migration in a modified Boyden chamber, and C5aR expression on granulocytes from patients with severe sepsis or septic shock or from healthy individuals, the correlation failed to reach statistical significance.</p><p>It is concluded that granulocyte C5aR expression is affected by several plasma factors and that a reduction is clinically evident at the time of the sepsis diagnosis. Reduced granulocyte C5aR expression is associated with an impaired chemotaxis but does not alone limit the chemotactic response.</p>

Toxic products, such as endotoxin from the gram-negative and exotoxin from the gram-positive bacteria, are the most important initiators of the inflammatory host response in sepsis. In addition to antibacterial treatment, numerous attempts have been made to interfere with the exaggerated proinflammatory cascade initiated by the toxins. As most antitoxic and anti-inflammatory agents have shown no clear efficacy, an attractive alternative has been to prevent or minimise their release. Therefore, it was of interest to further study the antibiotic-induced release of toxins after exposure to antibiotics used for the treatment of the most severe infections, especially if protein synthesis inhibitors could reduce the release induced by PBP 3-specific β-lactam antibiotics. There were significant reductions in endotoxin release from gram-negative bacteria when the combination of the PBP 3-specific β-lactam antibiotic, cefuroxime, and the protein synthesis inhibitor, tobramycin, was compared with cefuroxime alone. Increasing doses of tobramycin reduced endotoxin release and increased the killing rate. In a kinetic in vitro model the endotoxin release from E.coli was higher after the second dose of cefuroxime. Nevertheless, it was reduced after addition of tobramycin. No binding of tobramycin to endotoxin was observed, either in vivo or in vitro. In a porcine sepsis model, a possible anti-inflammatory effect of ceftazidime and tobramycin, expressed as late cytokine inhibition, was seen. The protein synthesis inhibitor, clindamycin, released less streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A (SpeA) from a group A streptococcus strain than penicillin, and addition of clindamycin to penicillin resulted in less toxin production than penicillin alone. The SpeA production was dependent on the bacterial number at the start of treatment. Higher doses of penicillin also led to less SpeA. The choice of antibiotic class and dose may be important in the severely ill septic patient in whom an additional toxin release could be deleterious. A combination of a β-lactam antibiotic and a protein synthesis inhibitor seems beneficial but further investigations are needed.