Les séismes intermédiaires (30-300 km) ont été largement documentés dans les plaques océaniques en subduction mais leur mécanisme physique reste énigmatique. Des séismes se produisent dans les plans de Wadati-Bénioff supérieur et inférieur. Ce dernier se situe dans le manteau lithosphérique plongeant, 15 à 40 km sous l’interface de subduction, et est considéré dû à la déshydratation de l’antigorite, serpentine de haute température.Pour tester cette hypothèse et comprendre quel mécanisme est en jeu dans le plan inférieur, des expérimentations (Griggs et D-DIA) et une étude de terrain (Balmuccia, Italie) ont été effectuées.Des péridotites artificielles ont été déshydratées pendant leur déformation dans des conditions typiques du manteau supérieur (1 à 3.5 GPa). Des émissions acoustiques sont enregistrées dans des échantillons comportant 5 %vol. d’antigorite. Les microfailles associées sont scellées par des pseudotachylites contenant des fluides, montrant que la déstabilisation de l’antigorite a déclenché une rupture dynamique et la fusion de l’olivine sur la surface de faille. Ces résultats mènent à l’établissement d’un model dans lequel un transfert de contrainte induit par déshydratation, et non par surpression de fluides, est le déclencheur de la fragilisation des roches du manteau.Parallèlement, une pseudotachylite de la péridotite de Balmuccia révèle l’enregistrement de l’histoire du glissement d’un séisme fossile de magnitude Mw > 6. La lubrification co-sismique est complète et transitoire, car le magma peut rapidement s’écouler dans les fentes en tension lors du passage du front de rupture, peut-être plus vite qu’il n’est produit. L’aspiration du magma mènerait à un refroidissement permettant le rétablissement de la résistance et l’arrêt du glissement.Cette pseudotachylite naturelle, un million de fois plus grande que son analogue expérimental, s’est formée dans les mêmes conditions de pression et de température. La grande similitude entre ces failles sur le terrain et au laboratoire indique un mécanisme similaire, et donc que les expériences montrent un mécanisme de rupture représentatif de ce qui se passe dans la nature. D’autre part, de l’H2O, trouvée fossilisée dans la pseudotachylite, était présente pendant la rupture sismique.Ce travail réconcilie des décennies d’études semblant contradictoires sur le lien entre séismes mantelliques et déshydratation de l’antigorite. À une certain échelle, une fraction d’antigorite de seulement 5 %vol. suffit à déclencher une sismicité, qui pourrait finalement être vue comme un indicateur du degré d’hydratation dans le manteau lithosphérique. / Intermediate-depth earthquakes (30-300 km) have been extensively documented within subducting oceanic slabs but their physical mechanisms remain enigmatic. Earthquakes occur both in the upper and lower Wadati-Benioff planes. The latter is located in the mantle of the subducted oceanic lithosphere, 15-40 km below the plate interface, and is thought to be due to the dehydration of antigorite, the high-temperature serpentine.To test this hypothesis and understand which mechanism is at play in the lower plane, both experiments (Griggs and D-DIA) and field work (Balmuccia, Italy) have been performed.Artificial peridotites were dehydrated during deformation at upper mantle conditions. Between 1 and 3.5 GPa, acoustic emissions are recorded in samples with only 5 vol.% antigorite. Associated microfaults are sealed by fluid-bearing pseudotachylytes, showing that antigorite destabilization triggered dynamic shear failure and frictional melting of olivine. These results lead to a model in which dehydration-induced stress transfer, rather than fluid overpressure, is the trigger of mantle rocks embrittlement.Simultaneously, a pseudotachylyte from the Balmuccia peridotite reveals the recorded sliding history of an ancient Mw > 6 earthquake. The co-seismic fault lubrication is complete and transient, as the melt could rapidly flow into tensile fractures generated by the rupture front pass through, possibly faster than it is produced. Melt suction within the fractures led to rapid cooling and may have promoted strength recovery and sliding arrest.This natural pseudotachylyte, one million times larger than the experimental ones, has formed at the same pressure and temperature. The high similarity between those experimental and natural faults indicates a similar mechanism at both scales, and thus that the experiments show a rupture mechanism representative of what happens in nature. Furthermore, H2O, found fossilized in the pseudotachylyte, was somehow present during the seismic rupture.This work reconciles decades of apparently contradictory studies on the possible link between mantle earthquakes and serpentine dehydration. At a certain scale, an antigorite fraction as low as 5 vol.% is sufficient to trigger seismicity, which could therefore ultimately be seen as an indicator for the degree of hydration in the lithospheric mantle.

Although soils developed from ultramafic parent materials have significance to agriculture, ecology and health, their bio-geochemistry is poorly understood. The mineralogical and bio-geochemistry of soils formed from the ultramafic parent materials of the Great Dyke, Zimbabwe and Gillespie County, Texas was investigated. The objectives were to determine the mineralogical and bio-geochemical properties of the soils in order to assess the potential impact and challenges to agriculture, and environmental quality. Soil samples were taken from the crest, shoulder, footslope and the toeslope. Chemical analyses were performed by nuclear and spectroscopic techniques. Mineral characterization was conducted by x-ray diffraction (XRD) and spectroscopic techniques. Microbial whole-community structure was determined by the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) technique. The results indicate wide chemical and mineralogical compositions among the studied sites. The soils contain relatively high concentrations of heavy metals (some sites contain Cr(VI)), but low levels of K and Ca. The highest concentrations of trace metal were associated with chromite, Fe oxides and serpentinite. The concentrations of Mg were higher than those of Ca and varied between Zimbabwe and Texas soils largely due to the parent materials. Unique to these soils is the occurrence of talc, serpentine, chlorite, Fe-rich smectite, amphiboles, pyroxenes, Fe and Cr oxides in relatively large amounts. These soils also lack micas and have neglible amounts of kaolinite and feldspars. Palygorskite and serpentine occurred in specific soil horizons and at specific landscape positions. FAME profiles indicate that the soil microbial community structure is predominantly bacteria and fungi (including arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi) at each landscape position across the transect. Biomarkers for actinomycetes were undetectable. The proportions of Gram-positive bacteria were higher than those of the Gram-negative bacteria. Very low levels of nutrients (Ca and K), higher Mg/Ca molar ratios, and the relatively high concentrations of heavy metals in these soils impact agricultural productivity. High concentrations of heavy metals, the presence of the Cr(VI) as well as its great potential to form in these soils might impact microbial activity and environmental quality. The occurrence of fibrous minerals (e.g serpentine and amphiboles) in these soils will likely impact human health.

In this thesis heterogeneous bipolar plates are applied to pure hydrogen PEMFC (called HFC) stacks. The experimental methods are adopted to study the performance and characteristics of the cell under certain operational conditions. In order to obtain the permeability of carbon fiber bipolar plates the pressure drops and flow rates are measured on the two sides of the carbon fiber bunch. A test device has been developed to separate the gas of the two sides so that the gas can only flow through the gaps between carbon fibers. Additionally, the gas pressures on the flow channel and the output voltage of each cell in several locations are measured to help us to understand their relationships. The flow characteristics of the gas reactants in these carbon fiber bipolar plates can also be understood from these measurements. A bipolar plate with the parallel or serpentine flow channel can be formed by properly arranging the carbon fiber bunches. However, if the oxidizer is air and only single inlet and outlet in cathode chamber are designed, the oxidizer can always not be supplied sufficiently in high power density. The experimental studies display that the output voltages of cells in the midstream or downstream are far below the output voltage in the upstream. The voltage of cells in the upstream is the highest, the next one is in the downstream, and the lowest one is located in the midstream due to accumulating of nitrogen. The insufficiency of oxidizer occurs more seriously in the parallel flow channel than that in serpentine flow channel in single inlet and outlet design. The distribution of current is not uniform especially near midstream, although this phenomenon can be improved by increasing the air inlet pressure. However, the problems are hard to solve in large MEA if we just increase the inlet pressure. Another strategy is needed to solve this problem. In order to solve the insufficient supply of air in single inlet and outlet design, multiple inlets and outlets are designed. In this design multiple entries can supply enough fresh air driven by fan, and multiple exits can exhaust inert gas by exhausting fan to avoid accumulating in a reactive chamber so that the performance of stack can be improved dramatically.

Ultramafic soils enriched in nickel, such as found in Australia and New Caledonia, are associated with unique, diverse and poorly known vegetation communities. Re-establishment of these highly specific ecosystems is still a challenge for Ni mining companies. Ultramafic vegetation communities are the outcome of a long evolution process resulting in their adaptation to the extreme soil conditions found on ultramafic outcrops. Mycorrhizal fungi, a very common plant symbiont, are generally thought to be beneficial to plants in other ecosystems, providing plants with phosphorus and even promoting metal tolerance in plants in some cases. We examined the hypothesis that mycorrhizal fungi may contribute to the survival of plants in ultramafic soil conditions. Bandalup Hill, an ultramafic outcrop enriched in Ni (South West of Western Australia) was selected to assess the contribution of mycorrhizal fungi to ultramafic plants. Soil constraints, in particular the degree of Ni toxicity, were assessed at two sites with ultramafic soils within the outcrop. Total metal, nutrient, DTPA extractable Ni and available P were measured in soil while Ni, Ca and Mg were tested in the soil solution. In addition, nutrients and metals were analyzed in shoots of some plant species occurring at each site: Eucalyptus flocktoniae, Melaleuca pomphostoma, Melaleuca coronicarpa and Hakea verucosa. Topsoils in Bandalup Hill and plant shoots had high levels of Ni, and very low levels of P, K and N. Variation in DTPA extractable Ni between sites reflected the variation in shoot Ni level of E. flocktoniae and M. pomphostoma. Variations in soil solution Ni levels reflected variations in shoot Ni levels of M. coronicarpa and H. verucosa between sites. The germination requirements of the plant species used to assess the soil constraints was assessed. Species selected included Eucalyptus flocktoniae, Melaleuca coronicarpa, and Hakea verucosa. Seeds of E. flocktoniae and M. coronicarpa had a higher germination rate if pre-treated with smoke water, while no pre-treatment was required to germinate H. verucosa seeds. The unusual germination requirement of E. flocktoniae and M. coronicarpa involve complex chemical signals that may be present in the soil when the conditions are more favorable for plant establishment. Such unusual germination requirement may represent an adaptation to the hostile conditions of the ultramafic soils of Bandalup Hill. The mycorrhizal association and root characteristics of the selected plant species was also assessed after 8 weeks of growth in undisturbed ultramafic topsoil cores from Bandalup Hill. Roots of these species (including H. verucosa from a previously designated non-mycorrhizal family, Proteaceae) were associated with mycorrhizal fungi. Roots of E. flocktoniae and M. coronicarpa were colonized by both arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECM), while roots of H. verucosa only contained some AM fungal structures. All species had high shoot to root ratios and their root characteristics reflected their association with mycorrhizal fungi. Based on the previous observations, uninoculated and inoculated E. flocktoniae seedlings were grown for 10 to 16 weeks in sand amended with Ni at 0, 0.2, 1 and 2.3 mg/kg. Mycorrhizal inoculum consisted of spores of Pisolithus sp. (ECM) or a mix of AMF spores and colonized root fragments, both originating from Bandalup Hill. Another inoculum consisted in Pisolithus sp. spores from a site with ultramafic soils in New Caledonia. Inoculation with AM and ECM fungi from Bandalup Hill was beneficial to E. flocktoniae. Benefits consisted mainly of a reduction of Ni shoot translocation at the highest Ni soil level. At 1 mg/kg soil Ni, E. flocktoniae exhibited a certain degree of tolerance to Ni. A substantial increase in growth and nutrient uptake with Pisolithus sp. from Western Australia was also observed. The contribution of AM fungi from Bandalup Hill to E. flocktoniae, M. coronicarpa, H. verucosa, and Trifolium subterraneum (clover) was then examined in ultramafic soil from Bandalup Hill.Steaming of ultramafic soil increased the availability and plant uptake of P. Consequently, uninoculated seedlings grew better, and inoculation with AM fungi decreased the growth of native plant species but did not affect their shoot Ni concentration. The presence of AM fungi increased the concentration of P in shoots of native plants species. Inoculation had no effect on the growth and nutrient content of subterranean clover. As mining activities have the potential to reduce the infectivity of AM fungi in topsoils, the effect of disturbance and storage practices on the AM infectivity of ultramafic topsoils collected in summer or winter from Bandalup Hill was investigated. Disturbance consisted in passing topsoil through a 2mm seive and cutting roots into 1cm fragments. Disturbed topsoil was then stored at room temperature in pots that were either sealed from the atmosphere or left open, and pots were maintained at field capacity. E. flocktoniae seedlings were planted in undisturbed and disturbed topsoil just after topsoil collect and then after 3, 6 and 9 months of topsoil storage. AM fungi present in the topsoil collected in summer was less susceptible to initial disturbance than AM fungi present in topsoil collected during winter. Also, storage of topsoil in sealed pots watered to field capacity was more detrimental to its infectivity than storage of topsoil in dry conditions. Mycorrhizal fungi can contribute to the survival of some native plant species in the ultramafic soils of Bandalup Hill and they may represent another strategy to improve the success of Ni mine revegetation. However, such contribution may not be the unique avenue for native plants to survive in ultramafic soils of Bandalup Hill.

Diss. (sammanfattning). Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniv. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 1994. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [252]-272).

Les zones de subduction sont les plus grands systèmes de recyclage de notre planète. Elles permettent le recyclage de l'eau contenue dans la croûte océanique hydratée et de la lithosphère du manteau supérieur. L'eau joue un rôle clé dans de nombreux processus associés aux zones de subduction, comme la tectonique des plaques, la production de magma, le transport élémentaire et la génération de tremblement de terre. La composition chimique, le contenu H2O de la lithosphère océanique, l'âge et la géométrie de la plaque océanique sont les principaux facteurs contrôlant les processus de subduction, y compris la déshydratation.L'objectif principal de cette thèse est d'étudier le régime de la libération de l'eau depuis la plaque océanique subductante et le comportement du Fe et du S en contenus dans les serpentinites, qui représentent la principale lithologie de roche hydratées océaniques. L'approche expérimentale de ce travail permet d’étudier les changements chimiques et minéralogiques associés lors la déshydratation des serpentinites de différentes compositions. Un certain nombre de techniques d'analyse ont été utilisées pour étudier l’influence de la composition de la roche totale sur la composition des assemblages produits. Les intervalles de pression de température expérimentalement étudiés, à savoir 2 GPa et 450-900C, représentent des zones de subduction chaudes. L'extrapolation à d'autres gradients géothermiques communs a été faite par thermodynamique. Les compositions de serpentinite étudiées correspondent aux péridotites serpentinisées naturelles décrites pour la lithosphère océanique.Mon travail indique que la teneur en Fer contrôle a stabilité thermique d’antigorite. Déshydratation de serpentinites avec Fe, par conséquent, pasee à des températures plus basses par rapport aux assemblages Fe-libres. La déshydratation observée dans les systèmes sans Fer se fait le long d'une réaction univariante, alors que dans les systèmes contenant du Fer, la déshydratation se fait sur un domaine de température (réactions de déshydratation divariantes). De plus, la présence de Al dans serpentinite stabilise clinochlore, qui conserve 15% de l'eau initiale jusqu'à ~ 120 km (820°C/2 GPa) dans subduction chaud. Cette dépendance sur Fe et Al apporte importance de considérer non seulement la géométrie et l'âge de la plaque océanique, mais aussi une composition de lithologies lors de la modélisation et d’interprétation de subduction. Une comparaison entre la profondeur des séismes et la profondeur de déshydratation des serpentinites indique une possible contribution de la libération de l'eau à la sismicité dans les zones de subduction chaudes et à pente faible.La spectroscopie d'absorption des rayons X montre une réduction progressive de Fe et de S dans des serpentinites. Le rapport Fe3+/ Fetotal, de la roche totale, élevé dans la serpentinite, diminue dans les assemblages anhydres de haute température par décomposition de la magnétite (< 550°C) et de l’antigorite (700°C). La pyrite des serpentinites se transforme en pyrrhotite en-dessous de 450°C et induit une libération de ¼ de soufre initial, probablement sous forme de H2S. La magnétite et la pyrite présentes dans des serpentinites, sont des phases cruciales pour la production de fluides très oxydés et d’espèces volatiles soufrées qui peuvent être transportés depuis la plaque subductée vers le coin mantellique. Application des résultats montre que les fluides s’élevant de la plaque océanique sont responsables de l'oxydation du manteau; et décomposition de la magnétite et l’antigorite avec au moins 100°C différence peut provoquer une libération de fluides chimiquement différents à peu profond (basse-T) et profondes (T-élevé) parties de subduction. / Subduction zones are the largest recycling systems of our planet. Subduction zones involve recycling of water from hydrated oceanic crust and lithosphere to the upper mantle. Water plays a key role in subduction zone processes, including plate tectonics, magma generation, elemental transport and earthquake generation. The chemical composition, H2O content of oceanic lithosphere sinking to the mantle, age and geometry of subducting oceanic slab are the main factors controlling subduction zone processes including dehydration.The principle aim of this dissertation is to investigate the regime of water release from subducting oceanic plate and the associated behavior of Fe and S in serpentinites, which are the main carriers of water into the slab. The experimental approach of my work allows one to compare chemical and mineral changes occurred during dehydration of serpentinites with different composition. A number of analytical techniques were applied to study the influence of bulk rock composition on the mineral chemistry of produced assemblages. The experimentally investigated pressure-temperature ranges, i.e. 2 GPa and 450-900C, are representative for hot subduction zones. The extrapolation to other common geothermal gradients was done through thermodynamic modeling. The investigated serpentinite compositions correspond to natural serpentinized peridotites described for oceanic lithosphere.Bulk Fe content was demonstrated to decrease thermal stability of antigorite by 25C on average. Dehydration of Fe-bearing serpentinites, consequently, occurs at lower temperatures compared to Fe-free assemblages. Dehydration reactions observed in Fe-free systems are univariant reactions, while in Fe-bearing systems, serpentinites dehydration appears over a range of temperature through divariant reactions. Moreover, the presence of Al in serpentinite stabilized clinochlore, which retains 15% water initial contain in serpentinite down to ~120km (820°C/2 GPa) within hot subduction. Such a dependence of serpentinite dehydration on bulk Fe and Al brings importance of considering not only geometry and the age of the slab, but also a composition of slab lithologies while modeling and interpreting processes in subduction zone. A comparison of the depths of serpentinite dehydration and seismicity revealed a strong correlation and therefore a potential contribution of water release to seismicity in the case of hot subduction zones (i.e., Chili type subduction).X-ray absorption spectroscopy measurements revealed a progressive reduction of Fe and S in investigated serpentinites. The bulk Fe3+/Fetotal ratio initially high in serpentinite is shown to decrease in anhydrous and higher temperature assemblages due to magnetite and Fe3+-bearing antigorite breakdown at <550°C and 700°C, respectively. The presence of pyrite in serpentinite, which transforms to pyrrhotite below 450°C, imposes a release of ¼ of initial sulfur, in H2S form. The presence of magnetite and pyrite in serpentinite, is crucial and responsible for the production of highly oxidized fluids and volatile sulfur species, which can be transported from the subducting slab into the mantle wedge. Application of results, obtained in the present study, to nature demonstrates that fluids rising from subducting slab are responsible for oxidation of overlying mantle, and in addition, magnetite and antigorite breakdown which occurs with at least 100°C difference may cause a release of chemically different fluids at shallow (low-T) and deep (high-T) parts of subduction.

Tests for adaptation to three different soils inhabited by subspecific taxa within Phacelia dubia and for preadaptation to a serpentine soil were conducted to examine the plausibility of an endemic-to-endemic evolutionary pathway. Each taxon performed optimally on its home soil, demonstrating edaphic specialization. None survived on the serpentine. Hydroponic assays for tolerance to two serpentine factors, elevated magnesium: calcium and elevated nickel, were conducted on population samples and maternal half sib families. Performance was estimated by root length and rosette diameter while leaf dissection served as an indicator of developmental maturity. Both nickel and magnesium: calcium of typical serpentine inhibited all three taxa. However, the granite outcrop endemic var. georgiana tolerated higher magnesium: calcium than other taxa, its tolerance exceeded that found on its home soil, and there was developmental variation among sibships. The tolerance uncovered in the endemic var. georgiana suggests that a specialized endemic taxon may encompass variation that could lead to preadaptation to a novel habitat and therefore serve as the raw material for speciation rather than represent an evolutionary dead end.

No description available.

In pursuit of producing robots capable of achieving the dexterity exhibited by animals in nature, roboticists have begun to explore the application of robotic tails. This thesis will explore the design, optimization, construction, and implementation of an articulated serpentine robotic tail. Numerous serpentine tail prototypes have been designed and tested; however, they have not yet been integrated with a mobile base. The main challenges preventing the incorporation of serpentine tails with mobile bases include: (1) the large size and inflexible packaging associated with the actuation unit for the tail, (2) the relatively low power to weight ratios of the existing serpentine tail systems, and (3) the complexity of optimizing the tails physical parameters. Therefore, to address these issues, a novel layout for a serpentine robotic tail actuation unit along with a design optimization methodology for the tail are proposed. The actuation unit will feature a power dense and modular design which allows for flexibility in packaging. Simulation results along with experimental data gathered using a prototype of the design will be reviewed in order to quantify the performance of the actuation unit. Following, a design optimization methodology which uses a modified direct collocation technique will be presented. The optimization allows for the simultaneous optimization of both a trajectory and the physical structure of a tail. Representative results of this technique will be presented and compared against more traditional methods for design optimization. To conclude the on-going and future work for both the actuation unit and optimization methodology will be stated. / Master of Science / Robotic tails largely fall into two categories based on their construction. These two categories are pendulum and serpentine structure. Pendulum structure tails consist of a long rigid rod with a weight attached to the end of it which can be swung to assist in controlling the orientation of the base which it is attached to. Serpentine tails are characterized by their ability to articulate and move in three dimensions similar to cat or monkey tails. The non-rigid structure of the tail opens up many new possibilities for their use. However, these possibilities come at the cost of design complexity. To date this complexity has led to designs for serpentine tails which are too heavy or unwieldy to be easily added to a mobile base. Additionally, the complexity of the tail structure itself make it difficult to optimize the design as has been done previously with pendulum designs. In an effort to overcome these challenges this thesis presents a novel design for a tail actuation unit and design optimization methodology. The actuation unit design is more power dense and provides greater flexibility in its layout than previous designs. This makes it much easier to adapt to and integrate with a mobile base. This will be demonstrated through the creation of a prototype tailed quadruped featuring the new actuation unit. The optimization methodology will use a technique known as direct collocation which has previously been developed for optimal path planning. This technique accommodates the complexities of serpentine tail designs and allows for the parameters such as length and weight of the tail to be optimized. The conclusion of the thesis will present the on-going and future work for both the actuation unit and optimization technique.