abstract: Sexual violence is a problem on college campuses across that United States. In the past few years, federal and state legislation has been drafted in order to address campus sexual violence. A main feature of this legislation addresses an important communicative construct related to students’ sexual behavior: sexual consent. Colleges and universities are adopting an affirmative-standard of consent, which emphasizes that consent for sexual activity be communicated verbally or via unambiguous actions, mutual, voluntary, enthusiastic, and ongoing throughout the sexual encounter. Literature has explored how college students communicate and interpret sexual consent, but antecedents to sexual consent behaviors, particularly affirmative consent, are largely unknown. The current investigation seeks to longitudinally explore the antecedents to college students’ affirmative sexual consent behaviors (i.e., nonverbal, initiating, verbal). Using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as a theoretical framework, hypotheses predicted that at Time 1 (T1) attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioral control would positively and significantly predict students’ (T1) intentions to communicate affirmative consent to their partner. Then, it was predicted that at Time 2 (T2)—thirty days later—intentions to communicate consent from T1 would positively and significantly predict college students’ communication of affirmative consent to their partner during their most recent sexual encounter. The final matched (i.e., completed T1 and T2 surveys) sample included two hundred twenty-five (N = 225) college students who had engaged in sexual activity during the 30 days between survey distributions. Results from the path analyses support the theoretically driven hypotheses for all three affirmative consent behaviors, and demonstrate that subjective norms and perceived control are important and strong determinants of students’ communication of affirmative sexual consent. Furthermore, multi-group invariance tested the potential moderating effects of three individual, two dyadic, and two environmental/contextual variables on the strength of path coefficients between TPB constructs for all three sexual consent behaviors. Only individual and environmental/contextual variables significantly moderated relationships within the TPB for the three models. Results are discussed with regard to theoretical implications as well as practical implications for university health educators and other health professionals. Additionally, limitations and future directions are noted. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Communication 2016

This study brings together the works of Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) and Gratian’s Decretum, the 12th-century textbook that became foundational to the teaching of medieval canon law. Boccaccio studied canon law for six years, and the Church’s legal system deals with many of the issues that interested Boccaccio: marriage, sexuality, adultery, consent, coercion, and gendered forms of violence. Boccaccio and Gratian each showed close attention to women’s interior perspectives and a marked emphasis on the importance of consent. This dissertation illuminates the intertextual connections between Boccaccio’s works and Gratian’s Decretum, and argues that Boccaccio understand the law much better than has previously been recognized. In fact, Boccaccio’s most perceptive insights on the nature of debt, obligation, and consent derive from legal sources. The first chapter of this project introduces the figures of Boccaccio and Gratian. Boccaccio’s own works and a few surviving documents attest to his years of legal study in Naples as well as his lifelong engagement with the law, both in politics and his personal life. Little is known of Gratian’s biography, but his Decretum became a standard teaching tool in the curriculum of canon law. Boccaccio undoubtedly read the Decretum, and the following chapters show the extent to which its innovative cases and viewpoints influenced him. Chapter 2 begins with the “conjugal debt,” the idea in canon law that spouses incur a mutual sexual obligation by virtue of being married. Boccaccio expands the concept of sexual debt to include metaphorical usury and theft, drawing on medieval economic theory and offering an economic model of human relationships. Though Boccaccio’s view is transactional, it does not reduce human beings to commodities; rather, the economic system expresses relationships of trust and obligation. Chapter 3 extends the legal-economic discourse to several stories in the Decameron that deal with adulterous relationships, demonstrating that Boccaccio’s idiosyncratic application of legal theories is nevertheless solidly grounded in his reading of canon law. Chapter 4 focuses on Boccaccio’s treatment of consent in matters of marriage and legislation. Relying heavily on Gratian’s treatment of error and mistaken identity, as well as the legal principle of quod omnes tangit, Boccaccio argues for women’s right to offer informed consent to decisions that concern them. Chapter 5 continues the discussion of consent in the context of sexual violence, exploring the idea of vis (force) in Gratian’s Decretum as well as Boccaccio’s Decameron and Ninfale fiesolano. Canon law emphasizes women’s right to consent to marriage; Boccaccio extends this principle to matters of sex and violence, recuperating the power of women’s consent in an area where medieval law often faltered.

L'objectif général de cette thèse était d'étudier expérimentalement les effets de l'alcool et de l'excitation sexuelle sur la perception du consentement et les intentions comportementales d'utiliser des stratégies coercitives pour avoir une relation sexuelle. Plus exactement, et afin d’étudier les effets de l’alcool sur la perception des intentions comportementales exprimées par une femme, un plan expérimental inter-participants a permis de répartir aléatoirement 150 participants, issus de la population générale, dans une condition Avec ou Sans alcool. Par la suite, les participants étaient à nouveau répartis aléatoirement dans l'une des deux modalités du facteur Excitation sexuelle, soit Avec ou Sans excitation sexuelle. Un plan factoriel inter-participants 2x2 a alors permis d'étudier les effets de l'alcool et de l'excitation sexuelle sur le temps de latence pour indiquer qu'une femme n'est plus intéressée par avoir une relation sexuelle, ainsi que sur les intentions comportementales d’utiliser des stratégies coercitives nonviolentes et de commettre un viol.Alors que les résultats ouvrent la voie à de nouvelles recherches afin de mieux comprendre les mécanismes par lesquels l’alcool peut, chez certains individus, contribuer à expliquer la coercition sexuelle, des implications pratiques peuvent également être proposées. Ainsi, si les résultats soutiennent l’importance de programmes de prévention primaire, voire situationnelle, ils soulignent que des programmes de prévention secondaire apparaissent également comme un élément indispensable d’une politique efficace de prévention de la coercition sexuelle. / The overall objective of this dissertation was to experimentally study the effects of acute alcohol intoxication and sexual arousal on the perception of consent and on behavioral intentions to use coercive strategies to have sex. More precisely, a between-subjects design was used to study the effects of acute alcohol intoxication in men on their perception of a woman’s behavioral intents. The 150 participants, recruited from the general population, were thus randomized either in a condition With alcohol or in a condition Without alcohol. The targeted blood alcohol content was 0,08 %. Then, participants were once again randomized in one of the two levels of “Sexual arousal” factor: a condition With sexual arousal anda condition Without sexual arousal. A 2x2 between-subjects factorial design was thereby used to study the effects of acute alcohol intoxication and sexual arousal on the latency to indicate that a woman is no longer interested in having sex as well as on the behavioral intentions to use non-violent coercive strategies and to commit rape.While our results pave the way for new research in order to better understand the processes and mechanisms by which acute alcohol intoxication may help to explain sexual coercion in some individuals, practical implications must also be considered. While results related to the perception of consent support the relevance of primary and situational prevention, results related to behavioral intentions to use coercive strategies to have sex highlight the need for secondary prevention in order to develop an effective policy for sexual coercion prevention.

The purpose of this study was to examine the beliefs and behaviors of Emerging Adults relating to sexual consent, and how these ideas relate to an individual’s well-being. Specifically, this study used a survey that combined multiple questionnaires that were developed by the research team as well as an existing measure of consent: Sexual Consent Scale- Revised (Humphreys, T., & Brousseau, M. 2010). These questionnaires were used to answer the two questions that are the focus of this presentation and are of importance to schools, parents and family life educators: “How does an individual’s sexual behavior, beliefs or attitudes relate to individual wellbeing?” and “How does an individual’s sexual behavior relate to sexual consent?" This study was a preliminary look into sexual consent in emerging adulthood with a focus on wellbeing. The study included a total of 74 females (77.1%) and 21 males (21.9%); One (1%) participant identified as Other. The range of ages was 18-28, with a mean age of 20.14 years (SD 2.091). A total of 37 different majors were included (Undergraduate and Graduate). Most students indicated they were single (n=51, 56.6%) and 39 individuals indicated they were in a relationship (n=39, 43.3%). The two most important findings for this presentation are: There is an “Idealized” idea of sexual consent, disconnected from behavior, highlighted by the cognitive dissonance shown in responses to two items— 93% of individuals strongly agreed to the item: “I feel that sexual consent should always be obtained before the start of any sexual activity,” yet only 11% strongly agreed to the statement “I always verbally ask for consent before I initiate a sexual encounter” and the second important finding relates to the hypothesis— “As lack of perceived behavioral control increases, scores of assuming consent will also increase”. The data showed there is a significant, strong, positive relationship between behavioral control and assuming consent (r=.570, p=.000), indicating an important connection. This research is especially important in the current political/cultural climate—promoting sexual knowledge is becoming increasingly imperative for the overall wellbeing of individuals. The baseball model of getting to “bases” and “scoring” dominates US culture and may lead to ideas of competition versus ideas of mutual pleasure and enthusiastic consent. Educating families as well as youth is an important step to changing culture. Social Learning Theory provides a unique perspective in that both behavioral skills/practice and cognition need to be addressed in sex education in order to reinforce positive sexual consent behaviors. There is evidence that the time period from adolescence into emerging adulthood shows an increase in sexual risk taking, and the theory of Emerging Adulthood marks this time period as one of transitions and exploration (Arnett 2000, 2007). Educating youth before this time period may be key to promoting healthy behaviors. This study is an initial investigation into a complex topic that can be used to facilitate a discussion on sexual consent as well as the current implications for families and parents that need to educate their children about these topics.

The high prevalence of sexual violence warrants continued research into its prevention. Understanding consensual sexual experiences holds promise for sexual violence prevention; however, sexual consent is a surprisingly understudied phenomenon. Existing research focuses on the tactics used to coerce consent and the ways in which college students initiate and indicate consent. Research that begins to articulate a theory of consent may help engineer situations antithetical to sexually violent experiences. This study is a first step toward that objective. This paper presents findings from an exploratory research study on college students’ conceptualizations of sexual consent. The purpose of this study was twofold: To investigate how college students define consent and to understand how context influences the consent process. To explore these research questions, quantitative and qualitative data were collected using Q methodology. Exploratory factor analysis revealed two groups of college students who conceptualize consent differently. One group focuses on the importance of consent to rape prevention, the other to healthy sexuality promotion. Qualitative interview data suggest contextual variables such as definition of consent and relationship type influence consent to a lesser extent than alcohol use, personal sexual experience, discrepant levels of sexual experience between partners, and feelings for a potential sexual partner. Results support replacing the current model of consent, in which consent is a contractual obligation between sexual partners, with one of sexual communication, where consent is woven into a broader conversation about healthy sexuality. The strengths and limitations of doing so are discussed and directions for future intervention research are presented.

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Child sexual abuse in its various guises is a phenomenon that has been part and parcel of society for centuries. It is only in the last few decades, however, that professional and societal interest in this social tragedy has been triggered, and continues to increase. The consequences and impact of child sexual abuse are far-reaching. Not only are individual victims marred by its consequences, but so too does it profoundly affect family systems and societies. As a result of professional interest in this field which has been fuelled by the popular media, the cloak of social secrecy which has covered this previously taboo subject has been shed. Although still hugely under-reported, sometimes even denied and buried by some individuals and societies, it is now widely acknowledged that child sexual abuse is a stark reality. Definitions of this phenomenon abound, with some definitions being more descriptive than others. The grooming process often forms an integral part of child sexual abuse. Through purposefully constructed relationships with their victims, sex offenders make their victims feel responsible for, complicit in and guilty about the abuse. The child is therefore tricked into keeping the abuse a secret. Often the child may not realise that what is happening is in fact abusive. Through grooming the abusive behaviour is normalised and the child may believe that it is part of an affectionate and caring relationship with the offender. The victim often gets lost in the labyrinth of confusion created by a web of deceit, which may result in consensual sexual activities between the child and the sex offender, a fact which is widely acknowledged. Consent is often raised as a defence when sex offenders are charged with and prosecuted for their crimes, more specifically in relation to victims who are over the age of twelve years and more frequently in relation to victims who are sixteen years and older. This consent, however, ought not to be valid for purposes of any sexual activities between such adults and children. Consent is often given as a consequence of the unique dynamics of the grooming process and the imbalance of power and authority. Furthermore, the child’s level of understanding and life experience, as shaped by the grooming process, may also have an important impact on ostensible consent given. South African courts, in accordance with international trends, have apparently started acknowledging the impact of the grooming process on consent given by children in sexual abuse cases. Some courts, as of late, are prepared to more readily reject the defence of consent in such cases. It is noteworthy that this trend has started to develop in South Africa even prior to the commencement of the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act 32 of 2007. This act defines consent for purposes of the newly created offences, and also stipulates the circumstances in which ostensible consent does not comply with the definition. This definition does not differ materially from the “traditional” approach to consent that was applied prior to the commencement of this act. Furthermore, a number of new offences were created, amongst them the offence of sexual grooming of children. Courts can therefore no longer ignore the existence of the grooming phenomenon and the impact thereof in child sexual abuse cases.

This qualitative study examines young adults’ expectations and experiences of consent and pleasure which result in a grey area. Based on focus groups and one-on-one interviews with 18 to 25-year-old women and men, I explore various experiences of consensual sex ranging from clearly consensual and pleasurable, consensual yet mediocre experiences, and those which reflect a grey area of consent. Whereas best and simply mediocre sex are characterized by clear feelings of consent, the grey area involves sex that is felt as less than fully consensual but not quite as sexual assault. I apply theories of expectation states, compulsory heterosexuality, and sexual script theories to the findings of this research to argue that adherence to traditional gender norms of heterosexual behaviour lead to greater social importance given to men’s needs for sexual pleasure. These inequalities and expectations surrounding sexual behaviour lead to feeling constrained in one’s ability to negotiate and interpret feelings of desire and consent, resulting in a grey area.

Sexual ethics is about the norms we should have when it comes to sex. It concerns how we should behave towards each other in terms of sexual acts. Within the field of sexual ethics, consent has acquired a central role in determining what is permissible and impermissible in sexual actions. This primarily focuses on whether consent can prevent sexual violation. Another focus is on whether individuals have a satisfying sexual life, a value that can be described as sexual flourishing. What has been missing in previous research is the emphasis on the relationship between consent and sexual flourishing. This is precisely the focus that this essay aims to explore - the connection between consent and sexual flourishing. In this essay, I will present arguments showing that consent and sexual flourishing do not harmonize well, and that consent can negatively impact sexual flourishing. The arguments are that consent creates an asymmetry between the sexual parties, based on two factors: that consent requires a strict structure that is lacking and that a person can relinquish their rights during the sexual act. I will then present two modifications of consent and examine whether they can avoid criticism and contribute to positive sexual flourishing. The conclusion is that due to consent requiring a specific structure tailored to agreements about objects, it is not suited for intimate situations involving bodily rights without further adjustments. / Sexuell etik handlar om vilka normer vi ska ha när det gäller sexuella relationer och sexakter och därmed hur vi ska agera mot varandra när det kommer till sexuella handlingar. Inom området för sexuell etik har samtycke fått en central roll för att avgöra tillåtna och otillåtna sexakter, inslag och handlingar. Diskussionen runt samtycke fokuserar ofta på om samtycke kan förhindra sexuella överträdelser. Ett annat fokus inom sexuell etik är om individerna har ett tillfredställande sexuellt liv. Ett värde som ska fånga detta är sexuellt blomstrande. Det som har saknats i tidigare forskning är fokuseringen på relationen mellan samtycke och personers sexuella blomstrande. Syftet med denna uppsats är att utforska vilka konsekvenser samtycke kan ha för sexuellt blomstrande. I denna uppsats kommer jag att argumentera för att samtycke kan påverka sexuellt blomstrande negativt. Argumenten är att samtycke skapar en asymmetri mellan de inblandade parterna baserat på två faktorer: att samtycke kräver en specificerad struktur som saknas under sexakter och att personer ger upp rättigheten till sexuellt självbestämmande under sexakten efter ett samtycke. Konsekvensen är att på grund av att samtycke utgår från en specifik struktur som inte är anpassad till överenskommelser om kroppar och intima situationer så måste modifikationer av samtycke utredas. Min slutsats är utan ytterligare modifikationer och förbättringar är samtycke inte lämplig för intima situationer.

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