In an effort to mitigate damage caused by earthquakes to the built environment, civil engineers have been commissioned to research, design, and build increasingly robust and resilient structural systems. Innovative means to accomplish this task have emerged, such as integrating Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) into structural systems. SMAs are a unique class of materials that have the ability to spontaneously recover strain of up to 8%. With proper placement in a structural system, SMAs can act as superelastic "structural fuses", absorbing large deformations, dissipating energy, and recentering the structure after a loading event. Though few applications have made it into practice, the potential for widespread use has never been better due to improvements in material behavior and reductions in cost. In this research, three different SMA-based structural applications are developed and tested. The first is a tension/compression damper that utilizes nickel-titanium (NiTi) Belleville washers. The second is a partially restrained beam-column connection utilizing NiTi bars. The third is an articulated quadrilateral bracing system utilizing NiTi wire bundles in parallel with c-shape dampers. Each system was uniquely designed to allow a structure to undergo large drift demands and dissipate energy while retaining strength and recentering ability. This exploratory work highlights the potential for SMA-based structural applications to enhance seismic structural performance and community resilience.

NiTiHf shape memory alloys have been receiving considerable attention for high temperature and high strength applications since they could have transformation temperatures above 100 °C, shape memory effect under high stress (above 500 MPa) and superelasticity at high temperatures. Moreover, their shape memory properties can be tailored by microstructural engineering. However, NiTiHf alloys have some drawbacks such as low ductility and high work hardening in stress induced martensite transformation region. In order to overcome these limitations, studies have been focused on microstructural engineering by aging, alloying and processing. Shape memory properties and microstructure of four Ni-rich NiTiHf alloys (Ni50.3Ti29.7Hf20, Ni50.7Ti29.3Hf20, Ni51.2Ti28.8Hf20, and Ni52Ti28Hf20 (at. %)) were systematically characterized in the furnace cooled condition. H-phase precipitates were formed during furnace cooling in compositions with greater than 50.3Ni and the driving force for nucleation increased with Ni content. Alloy strength increased while recoverable strain decreased with increasing Ni content due to changes in precipitate characteristics. The effects of the heat treatments on the transformation characteristics and microstructure of the Ni-rich NiTiHf shape memory alloys have been investigated. Transformation temperatures are found to be highly annealing temperature dependent. Generation of nanosize precipitates (~20 nm in size) after three hours aging at 450 °C and 550 °C improved the strength of the material, resulting in a near perfect dimensional stability under high stress levels (> 1500 MPa) with a work output of 20–30 J cm– 3. Superelastic behavior with 4% recoverable strain was demonstrated at low and high temperatures where stress could reach to a maximum value of more than 2 GPa after three hours aging at 450 and 550 °C for alloys with Ni great than 50.3 at. %. Shape memory properties of polycrystalline Ni50.3Ti29.7Hf20 alloys were studied via thermal cycling under stress and isothermal stress cycling experiments in tension. Recoverable strain of ~5% was observed for the as-extruded samples while it was decreased to ~4% after aging due to the formation of precipitates. The aged alloys demonstrated near perfect shape memory effect under high tensile stress level of 700 MPa and perfect superelasticity at high temperatures up to 230 °C. Finally, the tensioncompression asymmetry observed in NiTiHf where recoverable tensile strain was higher than compressive strain. The shape memory properties of solutionized and aged Ni-rich Ni50.3Ti29.7Hf20 single crystals were investigated along the [001], [011], and [111] orientations in compression. [001]-oriented single crystals showed high dimensional stability under stress levels as high as 1500 MPa in both the solutionized and aged conditions, but with transformation strains of less than 2%. Perfect superelasticity with recoverable strain of more than 4% was observed for solutionized and 550 °C-3h aged single crystals along the [011] and [111] orientations, and general superelastic behavior was observed over a wide temperature range. The calculated transformation strains were higher than the experimentally observed strains since the calculated strains could not capture the formation of martensite plates with (001) compound twins.

Šiame baigiamajame magistro darbe apžvelgti atmenieji lydiniai, pagrindinės jų savybės bei panaudojimo pavyzdžiai, atlikta literatūros nagrinėjama tematika apžvalga, pagrindiniai šių medžiagų panaudojimo privalumai ir trūkumai. Atlikus literatūrinos apžvalgą, remiantis teoriniais duomenimis ir charakteristikomis, suplanuotas ir atliktas eksperimentas — siekiant geriau išsiaiškinti pagrindines šių lydinių savybes bei charakteristikas, kurios reikalingos norint šias medžiagas panaudoti robotiškos srityje - robotų vykdikliams. Eksperimentiškai gauti duomenys pateikiami grafikų pavidalu, iš kurių nustatytos pagrindinės charakteristikos, kurios reikalingos norint sėkmingai šias medžiagas panaudoti projektuojant įvairius mechanizmus ir pavaras su šio lydinio vykdikliais. Eksperimento metu gauti duomenys panaudojami sudarant sistemos dinaminį modelį, kuris sumodeliuojamas skaitmeniniu būdu. Gaunamas sistemos atsakas, kuris patvirtina eksperimento metu gautus duomenis ir suteikia galimybę tolesnius eksperimento plėtojimo planus ir tyrimus vykdyti skaitmeniniais metodais. / This final master thesis contains an overview of shape memory alloys, their literature review, main characteristics, common sage examples as well as their advantages and disadvantages. After analyzing the literature review the experiment has been planed and made in purpose of researching the most basic characteristics of shape memory alloys. The experiment was made with a shape memory alloy spring. The main purpose of the research is to get the most of the characteristics that are mostly needed for the successful usage in the robotic actuators. The data that was taken from the experiment in included in this paper. Acording to this data the conclusions has been made. Based on the experiment data and theoretical data the system’s dynamic model has been made to confirm the results that were taken from the experiment. This thesis allows to use the data taken from the experiment to be used in digital modeling, so further experimenting and system’s designing can be done using digital methods.

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) exhibit the ability to absorb large dynamic loads and, therefore, are excellent candidates for structural components where impact loading is expected. Compared to the large amount of research on the shape memory effect and/or pseudoelasticity of polycrystalline SMAs under quasi-static loading conditions, studies on dynamic loading are limited. Experimental research shows an apparent difference between the quasi-static and high strain rate deformation of SMAs. Research reveals that the martensitic phase transformation is strain rate sensitive. The mechanism for the martensitic phase transformation in SMAs during high strain rate deformation is still unclear. Many of the existing high strain rate models assume that the latent heat generated during deformation contributes to the change in the stress-strain behavior during dynamic loading, which is insufficient to explain the large stress observed during phase transformation under high strain rate deformation. Meanwhile, the relationship between the phase front velocity and strain rate has been studied. In this dissertation, a new resistance to phase transformation during high strain rate deformation is discussed and the relationship between the driving force for phase transformation and phase front velocity is established. With consideration of the newly defined resistance to phase transformation, a new model for phase transformation of SMAs during high strain rate deformation is presented and validated based on experimental results from an austenitic NiTi SMA. Stress, strain, and martensitic volume fraction distribution during high strain rate deformation are simulated using finite element analysis software ABAQUS/standard. For the first time, this dissertation presents a theoretical study of the microscopic band structure during high strain rate compressive deformation. The microscopic transformation band is generated by the phase front and leads to minor fluctuations in sample deformation. The strain rate effect on phase transformation is studied using the model. Both the starting stress for transformation and the slope of the stress-strain curve during phase transformation increase with increasing strain rate.

NiTi-based shape memory alloys (SMAs) offer a good combination of high-strength, ductility, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility that has served them well and attracted the attention of many researchers and industries. The alloys unique thermo-mechanical ability to recover their initial shape after relatively large deformations by heating or upon unloading due to a characteristic reversible phase transformation makes them useful as damping devices, solid state actuators, couplings, etc. However, there is a need to increase the temperature of the characteristic phase transformation above 150 °C, especially in the aerospace industry where high temperatures are often seen. Prior researchers have shown that adding ternary elements (Pt, Pd, Au, Hf and Zr) to NiTi can increase transformation temperatures but most of these additions are extremely expensive, creating a need to produce cost-effective high temperature shape memory alloys (HTSMAs). Thus, the main objective of this research is to examine the relatively unstudied NiTiZr system for the ability to produce a cost effective and formable HTSMA. Transformation temperatures, precipitation paths, processability, and high-temperature oxidation are examined, specifically using high energy X-ray Diffraction (XRD) measurements, in NiTi-20 at.% Zr. This is followed by an in situ XRD study of the phase growth kinetics of the favorable H-phase nano precipitates, formed in NiTiHf and NiTiZr HTSMAs, based on prior thermo-mechanical processing in a commercial NiTi-15 at.% Hf HTSMA to examine the final processing methods and aging characteristics. Through this research, knowledge of the precipitation paths in NiTiZr and NiTiHf HTSMAs is extended and methods for characterization of phases and strains using high energy XRD are elucidated for future work in the field.

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are a new generation material which exhibits unique nonlinear deformations due to a phase transformation which allows it to return to its original shape after removal of stress or a change in temperature. It shows a shape memory effect (martensitic condition) and pseudoelasticity (austenitic condition) properties depends on various heat treatment conditions. The reason for these properties depends on phase transformation through temperature changes or applied stress. Many technological applications of austenite SMAs involve cyclical mechanical loading and unloading in order to take advantage of pseudoelasticity, but are limited due to poor fatigue life. In this thesis, I investigated two important mechanical feature to fatigue behavior in pseudoelastic NiTi SMA wires using high energy synchrotron radiation X-ray diffraction (SR-XRD). The first of these involved simple bending and the second of these involved relaxation during compression loading. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was performed to identify the phase transformation temperatures. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were collected for the initial condition of the NiTi SMA wires and during simple bending, SEM revealed that micro-cracks in compression regions of the wire propagate with increasing bend angle, while tensile regions tend to not exhibit crack propagation. SR-XRD patterns were analyzed to study the phase transformation and investigate micromechanical properties. By observing the various diffraction peaks such as the austenite (200) and the martensite (100), (110), and (101) planes, intensities and residual strain values exhibit strong anisotropy depending upon whether the sample is in compression or tension during simple bending. This research provides insight into two specific mechanical features in pseudoelastic NiTi SMA wires.

Kupferbasierte Legierungen mit Formgedächtniseffekt (z.B. Cu-Al-Ni-Mn) sind vergleichsweise kostengünstige Vertreter im Bereich der Hochtemperatur-Formgedächtnislegierungen mit vielversprechenden Umwandlungseigenschaften. Üblicherweise werden diese über konventionelle schmelzmetallurgische Prozesse hergestellt und dann einer thermomechanischen Behandlung unterzogen. Für die vorliegende Arbeit wurden die Formgedächtnislegierungen Cu-11.85Al-3.2Ni-3Mn und Cu-11,35Al-3,2Ni-3Mn-0,5Zr (m-%) unter Nutzung des selektiven Laserschmelzens (Selective Laser Melting – SLM) verarbeitet und Bauteile, nach einer Optimierung der Prozessparameter, mit einer hohen relativen Dichte (ca. 99%) hergestellt. Anschließend wurde der Einfluss des Energieeintrags, eines zusätzlichen Umschmelzschrittes (Mehrfachbelichtung) und einer Substratheizung auf das Gefüge, das Umwandlungsverhalten, die mechanischen Eigenschaften und die Rückverformung (Zweiweg-Effekt, Pseudoelastizität) untersucht. Zum Vergleich wurden weitere Probenkörper mittels Rascherstarrung der Schmelze hergestellt. Besonders die Korngröße und die thermische Stabilisierung der unterschiedlichen Phasen wirken sich unmittelbar auf die Umwandlungstemperaturen sowie das Rückverformungsverhalten aus. Durch die Nutzung des selektiven Laserschmelzens ergeben sich neue Möglichkeiten bei der Herstellung von endkonturnahen sowie geometrisch komplexen Bauteilen mit Formgedächtniseffekt. Zudem können die Gefüge, und damit die Umwandlungseigenschaften des Materials, bereits während der Herstellung eingestellt werden.

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) can recover large strains (e.g., up to 8%) by undergoing a temperature-induced phase transformation. This strain recovery can occur against large forces, resulting in their use as actuators. The SMA elements in such actuators integrate both sensory and actuation functions. This is possible because SMAs can inherently sense a change in temperature and actuate by undergoing a shape change, associated with the temperature-induced phase transformation. The objective of this work is to develop an SMA based cryogenic thermal conduction switch for operation between dewars of liquid methane and liquid oxygen in a common bulk head arrangement for NASA. The design of the thermal conduction switch is based on a biased, two-way SMA actuator and utilizes a commercially available NiTi alloy as the SMA element to demonstrate the feasibility of this concept. This work describes the design from concept to implementation, addressing methodologies and issues encountered, including: a finite element based thermal analysis, various thermo-mechanical processes carried out on the NiTi SMA elements, and fabrication and testing of a prototype switch. Furthermore, recommendations for improvements and extension to NASA's requirements are presented. Such a switch has potential application in variable thermal sinks to other cryogenic tanks for liquefaction, densification, and zero boil-off systems for advanced spaceport applications. The SMA thermal conduction switch offers the following advantages over the currently used gas gap and liquid gap thermal switches in the cryogenic range: (i) integrates both sensor and actuator elements thereby reducing the overall complexity, (ii) exhibits superior thermal isolation in the open state, and (iii) possesses high heat transfer ratios between the open and closed states. This work was supported by a grant from NASA Kennedy Space Center (NAG10-323) with William U. Notardonato as Technical Officer.

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This dissertation work focuses on the thermomechanical behaviors of two recent exciting developments in active polymers: shape memory (SM) effects and covalent adaptive network polymers with bond exchange reactions. Both polymers are active in performing prescribed functions when an external stimulus is applied. The goals of the studies are to understand complex thermomechanical behaviors of such smart polymers through experiments, develop constitutive models to describe the behaviors, and use the developed models to assist their development and engineering applications. For the polymer SM effect, we use a multi-branched constitutive model to study the SM effect achieved by polymer glass transition. The major finding of our study is that the “Reduced Time” is identified to be the unique parameter to determine the polymer shape fixity and recovery ratio under different thermo-temporal conditions in an SM cycle. Based on the theoretical knowledge, we also study the energy releasing mechanism within shape memory polymers (SMPs), multi-shape memory effects, as well as the SM properties in various composite systems, such as magnetic particles, carbon black and microvascular reinforced SMP composites. For the covalent adaptive network polymers, we adopt the emerging covalent chemistry BERs to achieve a malleable, reparable, recyclable and yet insoluble thermoset network. After being pulverized into micro-size, and then compressed either at high temperature or just facilitated by the moisture, the polymer powder could be welded on the interfaces, and assembled together into a new sample with comparable mechanical properties to the fresh sample. Theoretical models are developed to gain fundamental understanding of how the processing conditions can affect the quality of reprocessed materials. A molecular model is developed to understand welding kinetics at the interface. Such understanding is then used to develop a multiple length scale interfacial constitutive model, which can be implemented in to finite element simulation software to assist computational study of reprocessing process.