Despite being a top carnivore, there is relatively scant information on pumas (<i>Puma concolor</i>) in the neotropics especially compared to the more well-studied jaguar (<i>Panthera onca</i>). Understanding long-term puma distribution can affect land management decisions such as appropriate size of buffer zones around protected areas since pumas influence, and are influenced by, sympatric carnivore populations, lower trophic levels, and habitat. We used single-species, single-season and multi-season occupancy modeling to explore factors influencing distribution and persistence of pumas across the country of Belize. We used camera trapping data from 7 protected areas over 20 years with 2,198 camera stations covering ~5,000 km2. For both approaches, detection was mostly affected by distance to roads, enhanced vegetation index (EVI), and elevation, with variable directionality depending on site. In single season modeling, Occupancy increased at lower elevations and intermediate EVI in one site, and closer to water sources at another, while in multi-season modeling, intermediate EVI and canopy cover influenced occupancy. Biotic covariates were highly variable across sites and methods, but detection and occupancy were generally positively associated with prey, jaguar and ocelot trap rates, canopy cover, and elevation, while human trap rates negatively affected occupancy at one site. Colonization was positively affected by deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus</i> and <i>Mazama americana</i>) trap rates while extinction had no supported covariates. Puma occupancy ranged from 0.41-0.96 in single season models and 0.55-0.90 in multi-season models across all site/years. Compared to other single-season studies, Belize generally had higher occupancy, even in areas of selective logging, however there are no other multi-season studies to compare. While sites with heavy human impacts had lowest occupancy, these areas are still used and likely serve as steppingstones between protected areas of higher occupancy. Such areas could be targets for protection to preserve landscape connectivity. Additionally, due to high occupancy and colonization across varying habitat and biotic factors the jaguar is likely an effective umbrella species for puma space use, however more analysis on other species is needed to ensure efficiency for more than just pumas. / Master of Science / The neotropics is an important global zone known for high biodiversity and carbon sequestration. Felids (wild cats) play an important role in maintaining biodiversity and structure in ecosystems, however, they are facing threats to their survival due to habitat loss and fragmentation, and negative human-wildlife conflict. To protect ecosystem health, managers often employ the umbrella species concept, meaning if they protect the jaguar with its large spatial requirements, other wildlife species that fall within that area will also be protected. However, there have been few studies on the effectiveness of this strategy, especially for species like the puma, that might be competitive with jaguars. Occupancy modeling is a powerful tool in wildlife management that uses presence absence analysis to determine where species occur on a landscape. We used camera trapping data across multiple protected areas over 20 years to determine what influences pumas across the landscape. We found pumas were affected by differing variables depending on habitat. Important variables were: thickness of vegetation, elevation, distance to roads and water, prey and there were positively associated with jaguars and ocelots. Additionally, pumas were more likely to move into a new site if the activity of their favored prey, deer, was high. Pumas occurred at 41-96% of camera stations depending on site, across all years, indicating they are widespread across Belize. Compared to 11 other occupancy studies from Latin America, Belize generally had higher occupancy, even in areas of selective logging, compared to the other available studies in the neotropics. While sites with heavy human impacts had lowest occupancy, these areas are still being used by pumas and likely serve as steppingstones between protected areas of higher occupancy. Such areas could be targets for protection to preserve landscape connectivity across Belize, which is rapidly developing in infrastructure. Overall, jaguars appear to be a suitable umbrella species for the puma, however, further analysis is needed for more specialized species such as threatened Baird's tapir, crested guan, black howler monkey, and smaller cat species, the margay and jaguarundi, to ensure that the jaguar is a suitable umbrella species that supports a wide variety of species within the community.

Large carnivores play many vital biological, economic, and conservation roles, however, their biological traits (low population densities, cryptic behavior) make them difficult to monitor. Pumas have been particularly difficult to study because the lack of distinctive markings on their coats prevents individual identification, precluding mark-recapture and other similar analyses. Further, compared to temperate areas, research on the interspecific interactions of Central American felids is particularly lacking. I used single- and multi-season, single-species occupancy models and two-species co-occurrence models to analyze camera trapping and habitat data collected at eight study sites across Belize. Puma occupancy was positively influenced by jaguar trap success, understory density, canopy cover, and human trap success, and negatively influenced by stream density. Jaguar trap success was the best predictor of where pumas occurred, while prey species were not found to influence puma occupancy. Mean occupancy was 0.740 (0.013) and ranged from 0.587 (0.042) to 0.924 (0.030). Over time, puma occupancy rates were generally high (> 0.90) and stable. Puma occupancy was higher in logged areas, suggesting that current levels of natural resource extraction at those sites were not detrimental to the species. Co-occurrence modeling showed little evidence for interactions between the carnivores, suggesting that jaguars may be acting as an umbrella species and that conservation efforts directed at jaguars are likely to benefit the other carnivores, including pumas. Overall, these findings are positive for puma conservation, but human-induced land use change is expanding and further monitoring will give us insight into how pumas respond to human encroachment. / Master of Science

A destruição de florestas tropicais é intensa e pode levar à extinção de espécies sensíveis à fragmentação. Na Mata Atlântica, mamíferos com importantes funções no equilíbrio do ecossistema, como Panthera onca (onça-pintada), já estão ausentes em grande parte do bioma. Logo, é de extrema urgência compreender os processos que influenciam na permanência dessas espécies em uma área, para evitar futuras extinções locais. Assim, o objetivo geral deste estudo foi analisar as influências das características ambientais sobre a riqueza e ocorrência de mamíferos terrestres de médio e grande porte e as relações espaço-temporais entre o predador de topo, mesopredadores e presas em uma área de Mata Atlântica contíngua ao Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar com recente histórico de perturbação (Parque das Neblinas, Bertioga, SP). A coleta de dados foi realizada por armadilhamento fotográfico, durante 90 dias em 2013 e 2014, em 27 pontos amostrais, distantes 1 km entre si. As características ambientais avaliadas foram altitude, densidade de drenagem, precipitação média, temperatura média, número de palmitos (Euterpe edulis) e presença de trilhas naturais. Para analisar as influências do ambiente sobre a riqueza e ocorrência de espécies (com mais de três registros por ano) foram utilizados Modelos Lineares Generalizados. Para as demais análises, as espécies foram agrupadas em predador, mesopredadores, presas de grande, médio e pequeno porte. O período e sobreposição de atividade destes grupos foram estimados por meio da densidade de Kernel. A abundância foi estimada para mesopredadores e presas, através de modelos N-mixture. Para analisar a probabilidade de ocupação e detecção do predador de topo foram usados modelos de ocupação single-season. Foram amostrados 18 mamíferos terrestres de médio e grande porte, dos quais nove estão ameaçados de extinção ((Cabassous unicinctus (tatu-de-rabo-mole), Cuniculus paca (paca), Leopardus guttulus (gato-do-mato-pequeno), Leopardus pardalis (jaguatirica), Leopardus wiedii (gato-maracajá), Pecari tajacu (cateto), Puma concolor (onça-parda), Puma yagouaroundi (gato-mourisco) e Tapirus terrestris (anta)). A riqueza de espécies foi positivamente influenciada pelo maior volume de chuvas e a ocorrência da maioria das espécies (C. unicinctus, Dasypus novemcinctus (tatu-galinha), P. concolor, Sylvilagus brasiliensis (tapiti) e T. terrestris) foi influenciada pela densidade de drenagem em 2013. Em 2014, a riqueza não foi explicada por nenhuma característica e apenas quatro espécies sofreram influência de alguma característica ambiental. O predador de topo registrado foi catemeral, os mesopredadores e presas de grande porte mostraram-se mais noturnos e presas de médio e pequeno porte foram mais diurnas. Presas menores apresentaram a maior sobreposição total com o predador (&Delta;1=0,72). A influência sobre a probabilidade de ocupação da área pelo predador variou entre os anos, tendo sido pela abundância de presas de grande e pequeno porte, em 2013, e pela abundância de presas de médio porte, em 2014. A detecção foi influenciada apenas em 2014, de forma negativa pelas ocasiões. A partir destes resultados foi possível identificar as características ambientais que devem ser mantidas na área, como a disponibilidade de recursos hídricos e abundância de presas, a fim de conservar das espécies resilientes. / The destruction of tropical forests is alarming and may lead to the extinction of species susceptible to fragmentation. In the Atlantic Forest, mammals with important functions in the ecosystem balance, such as Panthera onca (jaguar), are already absent in part of the biome. Therefore, it is urgent to understand the processes that influence the permanence of these species in an area, in order to prevent future local extinctions. Thus, this study aimed to analyze the influence of environmental characteristics on the richness and occurrence of terrestrial mammals of medium and large size; as well as the spatio-temporal relationship between the top predator, mesopredator and preys, in the Atlantic foreste area continuos continuous with Serra do Mar State Park, with recent degradation history (Neblinas Park, Bertioga, State of São Paulo). Sample data was collected by camera trapping for 90 days in 2013 and 2014, 27 sampling points 1km distant from each other. The environmental characteristics were altitude, drainage density, average rainfall, average temperature, number of palm hearts (Euterpe edulis) and the presence of nature trails. Generalized Linear Models were used to analyze the environmental influences on the richness and occurrence of species (with more than 3 records per year). For the other analyses, species were grouped into predator, mesopredators, preys of large, medium and small size. The period and overlap activity of these groups were estimated by the Kernel density. Abundance was estimated for mesopredators and prey through N-mixture models. Single-season occupancy models were used to analyze the probability of occupancy and detection of top predators. A total of 18 terrestrial mammals of medium and large size were sampled, with nine of them being threatened with extinction: Cabassous unicinctus (naked-tailed armadillo), Cuniculus paca (paca), Leopardus guttulus (oncilla), Leopardus pardalis (ocelot), Leopardus wiedii (margay), Pecari tajacu (collared peccary), Puma concolor (cougar), Puma yagouaroundi (jaguarundi) and Tapirus terrestris (tapir). In the 2013, the species richness was positively influenced by the largest volume of precipitation and the species occurrence (C. unicinctus, Dasypus novemcinctus (tatu-galinha), P. concolor, Sylvilagus brasiliensis (tapiti) e T. terrestris) was interfered by the drainage density. In 2014, richness was not explained by any of the environmental characteristics mentioned and only four species have suffered influence of them. The top predator recorded was catemeral, the mesopredator and large prey were mainly nocturnal and prey of medium and small size were mainly daylight. Smaller prey had the highest total overlap with the predator (&Delta;1=0.72). The influence on the probability of occupancy of the area by the predator varied between the years: in 2013 it was the abundance of large and small preys, and in 2014, the influence was the abundance of medium preys. The detection was negatively influenced by the occasion only in 2014. Our findings showed the environmental characteristics that should be maintained in the area, such as water resources and abundance of prey, for conservation of Atlantic Forest and its fauna community.

A destruição de florestas tropicais é intensa e pode levar à extinção de espécies sensíveis à fragmentação. Na Mata Atlântica, mamíferos com importantes funções no equilíbrio do ecossistema, como Panthera onca (onça-pintada), já estão ausentes em grande parte do bioma. Logo, é de extrema urgência compreender os processos que influenciam na permanência dessas espécies em uma área, para evitar futuras extinções locais. Assim, o objetivo geral deste estudo foi analisar as influências das características ambientais sobre a riqueza e ocorrência de mamíferos terrestres de médio e grande porte e as relações espaço-temporais entre o predador de topo, mesopredadores e presas em uma área de Mata Atlântica contíngua ao Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar com recente histórico de perturbação (Parque das Neblinas, Bertioga, SP). A coleta de dados foi realizada por armadilhamento fotográfico, durante 90 dias em 2013 e 2014, em 27 pontos amostrais, distantes 1 km entre si. As características ambientais avaliadas foram altitude, densidade de drenagem, precipitação média, temperatura média, número de palmitos (Euterpe edulis) e presença de trilhas naturais. Para analisar as influências do ambiente sobre a riqueza e ocorrência de espécies (com mais de três registros por ano) foram utilizados Modelos Lineares Generalizados. Para as demais análises, as espécies foram agrupadas em predador, mesopredadores, presas de grande, médio e pequeno porte. O período e sobreposição de atividade destes grupos foram estimados por meio da densidade de Kernel. A abundância foi estimada para mesopredadores e presas, através de modelos N-mixture. Para analisar a probabilidade de ocupação e detecção do predador de topo foram usados modelos de ocupação single-season. Foram amostrados 18 mamíferos terrestres de médio e grande porte, dos quais nove estão ameaçados de extinção ((Cabassous unicinctus (tatu-de-rabo-mole), Cuniculus paca (paca), Leopardus guttulus (gato-do-mato-pequeno), Leopardus pardalis (jaguatirica), Leopardus wiedii (gato-maracajá), Pecari tajacu (cateto), Puma concolor (onça-parda), Puma yagouaroundi (gato-mourisco) e Tapirus terrestris (anta)). A riqueza de espécies foi positivamente influenciada pelo maior volume de chuvas e a ocorrência da maioria das espécies (C. unicinctus, Dasypus novemcinctus (tatu-galinha), P. concolor, Sylvilagus brasiliensis (tapiti) e T. terrestris) foi influenciada pela densidade de drenagem em 2013. Em 2014, a riqueza não foi explicada por nenhuma característica e apenas quatro espécies sofreram influência de alguma característica ambiental. O predador de topo registrado foi catemeral, os mesopredadores e presas de grande porte mostraram-se mais noturnos e presas de médio e pequeno porte foram mais diurnas. Presas menores apresentaram a maior sobreposição total com o predador (&Delta;1=0,72). A influência sobre a probabilidade de ocupação da área pelo predador variou entre os anos, tendo sido pela abundância de presas de grande e pequeno porte, em 2013, e pela abundância de presas de médio porte, em 2014. A detecção foi influenciada apenas em 2014, de forma negativa pelas ocasiões. A partir destes resultados foi possível identificar as características ambientais que devem ser mantidas na área, como a disponibilidade de recursos hídricos e abundância de presas, a fim de conservar das espécies resilientes. / The destruction of tropical forests is alarming and may lead to the extinction of species susceptible to fragmentation. In the Atlantic Forest, mammals with important functions in the ecosystem balance, such as Panthera onca (jaguar), are already absent in part of the biome. Therefore, it is urgent to understand the processes that influence the permanence of these species in an area, in order to prevent future local extinctions. Thus, this study aimed to analyze the influence of environmental characteristics on the richness and occurrence of terrestrial mammals of medium and large size; as well as the spatio-temporal relationship between the top predator, mesopredator and preys, in the Atlantic foreste area continuos continuous with Serra do Mar State Park, with recent degradation history (Neblinas Park, Bertioga, State of São Paulo). Sample data was collected by camera trapping for 90 days in 2013 and 2014, 27 sampling points 1km distant from each other. The environmental characteristics were altitude, drainage density, average rainfall, average temperature, number of palm hearts (Euterpe edulis) and the presence of nature trails. Generalized Linear Models were used to analyze the environmental influences on the richness and occurrence of species (with more than 3 records per year). For the other analyses, species were grouped into predator, mesopredators, preys of large, medium and small size. The period and overlap activity of these groups were estimated by the Kernel density. Abundance was estimated for mesopredators and prey through N-mixture models. Single-season occupancy models were used to analyze the probability of occupancy and detection of top predators. A total of 18 terrestrial mammals of medium and large size were sampled, with nine of them being threatened with extinction: Cabassous unicinctus (naked-tailed armadillo), Cuniculus paca (paca), Leopardus guttulus (oncilla), Leopardus pardalis (ocelot), Leopardus wiedii (margay), Pecari tajacu (collared peccary), Puma concolor (cougar), Puma yagouaroundi (jaguarundi) and Tapirus terrestris (tapir). In the 2013, the species richness was positively influenced by the largest volume of precipitation and the species occurrence (C. unicinctus, Dasypus novemcinctus (tatu-galinha), P. concolor, Sylvilagus brasiliensis (tapiti) e T. terrestris) was interfered by the drainage density. In 2014, richness was not explained by any of the environmental characteristics mentioned and only four species have suffered influence of them. The top predator recorded was catemeral, the mesopredator and large prey were mainly nocturnal and prey of medium and small size were mainly daylight. Smaller prey had the highest total overlap with the predator (&Delta;1=0.72). The influence on the probability of occupancy of the area by the predator varied between the years: in 2013 it was the abundance of large and small preys, and in 2014, the influence was the abundance of medium preys. The detection was negatively influenced by the occasion only in 2014. Our findings showed the environmental characteristics that should be maintained in the area, such as water resources and abundance of prey, for conservation of Atlantic Forest and its fauna community.

No description available.