Landscape fragmentation poses a major threat to biodiversity world-wide. The goal of my dissertation research was to determine the effects of landscape fragmentation on a lizard community in the Mescalero-Monahans shinnery sands, New Mexico and the extent to which conservation efforts might protect biodiversity in this ecosystem. My research relied heavily on data collected from a large-scale spatially-replicated comparative study. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impacts of landscape fragmentation as a result of oil and gas development on the dunes sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus). Results from analysis of lizard community structure indicate that fragmented sites are less diverse than non-fragmented sites. In particular, two species are found in lower density and occupancy in the fragmented locations (Holbrookia maculata and Sceloporus arenicolus). Analysis of landscape configuration at the scale of a trapping grid indicated that sand dune blowout shape and size differed between fragmented and non-fragmented locations. Differences in landscape pattern were associated with reduced lizard diversity. Because of this association between lower diversity and altered landscape pattern, extensive alterations to landscape pattern may cause disassembly at the ecosystem level. The maintenance of existing landscape pattern may be important to the maintenance of diversity in this ecosystem. Evaluations of habitat use patterns of the lizards in this community demonstrate that a few species have narrow preferences for certain habitats. In particular, H. maculata, Phrynosoma cornutum, and S. arenicolus all demonstrated narrow habitat use patterns. Effect size of fragmentation for each species indicated that the same three species showed a large effect when comparing their average abundances between fragmented and non-fragmented locations. Thus species that are most likely to benefit or be harmed by landscape fragmentation are those with the most specific habitat requirements. Umbrella species represent one of many approaches to conservation using surrogate species. I used data on ants, beetles, small mammals, lizards, and endemic species to test the use of the dunes sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus) as an umbrella for endemism and biodiversity of the Mescalero-Monahans shinnery sands ecosystem. I applied a comparative approach at three spatial scales to examine how conservation practices at different scales may affect biodiversity and endemism in this ecosystem. At the largest scale, the frequency of occurrence for endemic species increased though no other patterns emerged because S. arenicolus was present at all sites and there were no relationships between relative abundances of S. arenicolus and the other taxonomic groups. At the smallest scale, both beetle species richness, diversity, and endemic species richness were higher in the presence of S. arenicolus. To protect biodiversity in this ecosystem, conservation efforts should focus on protection at the scale of the species distribution rather than on the small-scale placement of individual well pads.

Chondrichthyans—sharks, rays, skates, and chimaeras—influence top down control of food webs and connect disparate ecosystems, yet populations of many species around the world have experienced sharp declines in abundance. Marine protected areas (MPAs) have a long history of conserving marine biodiversity, but their effectiveness to protect representative and critical habitat for threatened species on a global scale is controversial and hindered by a lack of biological and ecological data for the majority of chondrichthyan species. In this thesis, I use non-invasive baited remote underwater video (BRUV) and citizen science diver data to explore diverse chondrichthyan communities in two countries, South Africa and Costa Rica, with data-poor chondrichthyan fisheries and limit conservation funding, and the relationships of these chondrichthyans to biotic and abiotic factors in their habitats in and around MPAs. First, through a literature review, I find substantial taxonomic and geographic biases in understanding of reef shark biology, ecology, and conservation, which impair ability to implement effective conservation measures for these species. After identifying these research gaps, I used BRUVs to explore the diversity of a chondrichthyan hotspot in South Africa, finding many poorly understood endemic chondrichthyans. I discovered strong associations of the chondricthyan community to different habitat types (sand versus reef and kelp habitat), which resulted in poor diversity within one of the region’s larger MPAs—a whale sanctuary whose focus on large charismatic whales left mostly poorer quality sand habitat protected. However, a high occurrence of chondrichthyans within a neighbouring MPA suggested even small MPAs can conserve a high abundance of smaller species, especially if residency can be demonstrated. I then used the BRUV data to examine the relationships amongst these chondrichthyans and the community of other marine animals within the region, finding strong co-occurrence patterns that suggest chondrichthyans, particularly the endemic catsharks, could serve as effective ‘umbrella’ species for conservation in this region where little other information is available for conservation planning and monitoring. Finally, at Cocos Island, an MPA off Costa Rica, I discovered similarly strong, species-specific associations to another aspect of habitat: temperature. I found significant and species-specific responses to the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). For example, the scalloped hammerhead Sphryna lewini counts declined by 224.7% during strong El Niño conditions and by 14.7% with just a 1°C rise in SST, while the benthic whitetip reef shark Triaenodon obesus had a weaker response, dropping by only 7.9% and 4.4%, respectively. In general, strong El Niño events reduced sightings within the MPA, providing some of the first indications of how a rising frequency and intensity of these events will impact the spatial distribution of both chondrichthyans and their habitat in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. Overall, this thesis provides insight into the factors influencing chondrichthyan abundance and diversity, demonstrating the importance of considering both biotic and abiotic factors during MPA design and the need to study these factors across diverse taxonomic groups and ecosystems. / Graduate / 2021-05-08

Due to heavily managed forests in Sweden, there has been a rapid decline of deadwood and deciduous-rich areas since the 1950s. As a result of this, 2000 forest species are now red-listed of which 700 is in heavy need of deadwood. The white-backed woodpecker Dendrocopos leucotos, an umbrella species whose food choice consists of insects living in dead and decaying wood, has become critically endangered due to the lack of food and nesting areas. Preservation actions aimed towards saving the white-backed woodpecker are not only essential for itself but for 200 other species dependent on the same environmental requirements. The purpose of this study was to determine if the restoration for deciduous trees has favoured the white-backed woodpecker in four different areas: Ängsbacka, Degersjön, Ålidberget, and Kvillträsk in Västerbotten. By placing two different kinds of insect traps (window traps, and malaise traps) to analyze the different insects in restoration areas compared with control areas, I could investigate if there had been an increase in the number of insects preferred by the white-backed woodpecker. I could also investigate if there was a higher diversity of these preferred insects. There was no sign of an increase in numbers of preferred insects nor in numbers of preferred species. A higher diversity could neither be proven, however all four forests were deciduous-rich with high amount of dead-wood and has proven to show good potential for a future increase in saproxylic insects if restoration continues.

Despite being a top carnivore, there is relatively scant information on pumas (<i>Puma concolor</i>) in the neotropics especially compared to the more well-studied jaguar (<i>Panthera onca</i>). Understanding long-term puma distribution can affect land management decisions such as appropriate size of buffer zones around protected areas since pumas influence, and are influenced by, sympatric carnivore populations, lower trophic levels, and habitat. We used single-species, single-season and multi-season occupancy modeling to explore factors influencing distribution and persistence of pumas across the country of Belize. We used camera trapping data from 7 protected areas over 20 years with 2,198 camera stations covering ~5,000 km2. For both approaches, detection was mostly affected by distance to roads, enhanced vegetation index (EVI), and elevation, with variable directionality depending on site. In single season modeling, Occupancy increased at lower elevations and intermediate EVI in one site, and closer to water sources at another, while in multi-season modeling, intermediate EVI and canopy cover influenced occupancy. Biotic covariates were highly variable across sites and methods, but detection and occupancy were generally positively associated with prey, jaguar and ocelot trap rates, canopy cover, and elevation, while human trap rates negatively affected occupancy at one site. Colonization was positively affected by deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus</i> and <i>Mazama americana</i>) trap rates while extinction had no supported covariates. Puma occupancy ranged from 0.41-0.96 in single season models and 0.55-0.90 in multi-season models across all site/years. Compared to other single-season studies, Belize generally had higher occupancy, even in areas of selective logging, however there are no other multi-season studies to compare. While sites with heavy human impacts had lowest occupancy, these areas are still used and likely serve as steppingstones between protected areas of higher occupancy. Such areas could be targets for protection to preserve landscape connectivity. Additionally, due to high occupancy and colonization across varying habitat and biotic factors the jaguar is likely an effective umbrella species for puma space use, however more analysis on other species is needed to ensure efficiency for more than just pumas. / Master of Science / The neotropics is an important global zone known for high biodiversity and carbon sequestration. Felids (wild cats) play an important role in maintaining biodiversity and structure in ecosystems, however, they are facing threats to their survival due to habitat loss and fragmentation, and negative human-wildlife conflict. To protect ecosystem health, managers often employ the umbrella species concept, meaning if they protect the jaguar with its large spatial requirements, other wildlife species that fall within that area will also be protected. However, there have been few studies on the effectiveness of this strategy, especially for species like the puma, that might be competitive with jaguars. Occupancy modeling is a powerful tool in wildlife management that uses presence absence analysis to determine where species occur on a landscape. We used camera trapping data across multiple protected areas over 20 years to determine what influences pumas across the landscape. We found pumas were affected by differing variables depending on habitat. Important variables were: thickness of vegetation, elevation, distance to roads and water, prey and there were positively associated with jaguars and ocelots. Additionally, pumas were more likely to move into a new site if the activity of their favored prey, deer, was high. Pumas occurred at 41-96% of camera stations depending on site, across all years, indicating they are widespread across Belize. Compared to 11 other occupancy studies from Latin America, Belize generally had higher occupancy, even in areas of selective logging, compared to the other available studies in the neotropics. While sites with heavy human impacts had lowest occupancy, these areas are still being used by pumas and likely serve as steppingstones between protected areas of higher occupancy. Such areas could be targets for protection to preserve landscape connectivity across Belize, which is rapidly developing in infrastructure. Overall, jaguars appear to be a suitable umbrella species for the puma, however, further analysis is needed for more specialized species such as threatened Baird's tapir, crested guan, black howler monkey, and smaller cat species, the margay and jaguarundi, to ensure that the jaguar is a suitable umbrella species that supports a wide variety of species within the community.

Abstract Maintaining biodiversity in boreal forest landscapes in conjunction with forestry is a challenging task. This requires ecological understanding that is based on empirical research. In this thesis, I examined spatial and temporal occupancy patterns as well as predictability of the occurrence of the Siberian flying squirrel (Pteromys volans L.) in Finland. I used thematic maps which matched habitat requirements of the flying squirrel in forested landscapes and data on species presence and absence, which were gathered in suitable forest habitats. The results of this thesis provide applications for landscape management. First, the preferred habitat characteristics of the flying squirrel were linked to available forest data. In addition, some predictive habitat models could be used to estimate the distribution of the flying squirrel within a region. Second, based on a five year study the forests were classified as continuously occupied, continuously unoccupied and variable-occupancy patches. The dynamic occupancy pattern emphasizes the need for repeated surveys to also locate the seldom-used suitable habitats in a landscape. Third, a comparison of simulated future scenarios in long-term forest planning suggested that flying squirrel habitat might be maintained without considerable loss of timber in a landscape. Thus, a combination of ecological and economic goals in forestry planning is an encouraging alternative. Fourth, there were more polypore species in forests occupied by the flying squirrel. This suggests that conservation of the flying squirrel habitats would protect other naturally co-occurring species, and thus the flying squirrel could be assigned as an umbrella species in mature spruce-dominated forests. Based on these findings, I suggest that the flying squirrel could be used as one of the target species for forest management in boreal forest landscapes. Further research challenges are related to the examination of habitat thresholds and to the projection of future scenarios where ecological, economic and social aspects are combined to assist in complex decision making processes.

The sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) reaches the northern periphery of its distribution in south-central Sweden, where small, isolated relict populations occur in pine heath forests on sandy sediments. Modern forestry and fire suppression have reduced the amount of suitable open habitat for the species in this area and seem to be important for its decline. Main objectives of this thesis were to evaluate the efficiency of different management strategies, and if the sand lizard can function as an umbrella species for biodiversity conservation. Over a 16-year period, the estimated annual numbers of adult females in each of two study populations fluctuated between 23 and 3. Simulations of stochastic future population growth showed that the risk of extinction was highly dependent on population growth rate, which in turn was strongly affected by juvenile survival as indicated by elasticity analysis. Simulations of population growth for 50 years showed that the quasi-extinction risk (threshold ≤ 10 females) was &gt; 56% for patches ≤ 1 ha; which is the observed average size of suitable habitat for inhabited patches during a 10-year period. In managed metapopulation networks with highly co-fluctuating local populations, among-population dispersal was not important to reduce extinction risks over a 50-year horizon. In the field the preferred microhabitat of sand lizards was successfully restored using tree felling and patch-soil scarification. The lizards gradually colonized the restored patches, and 16 years after restoration, sand lizards where mainly found there. Pine-heath area, and patch area within individual pine heaths, were of major importance for long-term population persistence at regional and landscape scales, respectively. Analyses of nested species subsets and an umbrella index suggest that the sand lizard can be a useful cross-taxonomic umbrella species on both scales for other red-listed species.

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