Master of Science / Department of Biology / Jack Cully, Jr. / Disturbance is defined as any discrete event that disrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure and changes resources, substrate availability, or the physical environment. Habitat use by an organism is based on its perception of where to maximize its own fitness, and can be altered in response to disturbance-induced changes in resources, substrate, or physical features modified by disturbance. Disturbance-induced changes to vegetation structure reshape a small mammal’s surrounding physical environment and/or resources, and may influence its utilization of an area. Effective wildlife and resource management is dependent on a thorough understanding of how individual species and communities utilize their surroundings and how disturbance affects a species’ response to changes in its surroundings. We investigated seasonal habitat associations of three small mammal species and for overall species diversity across a gradient of military combat-vehicle disturbance intensities at the Fort Riley Military Reservation, Kansas. Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) abundance did not vary across a categorical gradient of disturbance created by military-combat vehicles, regardless of season. Western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis) abundance was associated with more highly disturbed areas irrespective of season. Prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) abundance was associated with habitat that was less disturbed in the spring but more highly disturbed in the fall. Shannon diversity of the small mammal community was higher in the more highly disturbed areas regardless of season. This research shows that small mammals respond to disturbances created by military training with combat vehicles in a species-specific manner, and indicates that there may be differences in the effects of military training versus natural or agricultural disturbances on the abundance and diversity of small mammals. This is an important consideration given that the Department of Defense manages more than 12 million ha of land in the United States, and is charged under the Sikes Act with conserving natural resources on these lands, including biological diversity. Thus, the findings of other ecological research on the effects of disturbance on small mammals may not be directly applicable to the types of disturbances that occur on military lands, which underscores the need for further research on the specific effects of military-training activities on species’ responses.

This study details results of small mammal surveys at 24 sites in four biomes (Nama- and Succulent Karoo, Albany Thicket, Grassland) as part of the Karoo BioGaps project to augment baseline biodiversity information needed to guide proposed fracking activities in the Shale Gas Development Area (SGDA) (Holness et al. 2016). A strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), commissioned by the South African Government, evaluated the potential to exploit the supposedly substantial reserves of shale gas using hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) in the Great Karoo Basin of South Africa. Terrestrial micromammals (<500g) were captured using Sherman livetraps (September 2016 to March 2017). Sampling over 6580 trap-nights produced 339 captures of 271 individuals representing 14 taxa. Trapping success was low 5.14% (mean per site 0.37± 0.61%). Most captures (87%) and individuals (83%) were recorded in the Nama-Karoo (294 captures, 226 individuals, 15 sites), whereas only 5 captures were recorded in Albany Thicket (3 sites). Four xerophilous/generalist species (Micaelamys spp. (Rock rats), Gerbilluscus paeba (Hairyfooted Gerbil), Macroscelides proboscideus (Round-eared Sengi), and Elephantulus spp. were numerically dominant at most sites, and within most biomes/bioregions; while five rare species were only ever recorded once. Mean α diversity (observed species richness Sobs) per site (2.88 ±1.99) and Shannon-Wiener diversity (1.70 overall, 1.04 ±0.33 per site) were low, with only 5.47 effective species (mean = 3.04 ±1.08 per site) and low equitability (0.64 overall). Sobs was highest in Nama-Karoo (13 species), and lowest in the Grassland and Albany Thicket biomes (2-5 species). Species accumulation/rarefaction curves did not reach asymptotes, and Sobs values for most sites/biomes/bioregions were significantly lower than Chao1 predicted species richness, suggesting that sampling effort did not accurately estimate species richness. However, trapping efficiency was generally high (56-100%; mean 86.7%) which compares favourably with that of two recent published studies in South Africa. Multiplicative beta diversity (βMt) across the SGDA was 4.56 indicating high species turnover between sites/biomes/bioregions. Species turnover was high across biome boundaries, notably Albany Thicket-Grassland (15), Nama-Karoo-Albany Thicket (14), and Succulent Karoo-Grassland (12). Biomes and bioregions tended to plot apart in ordination analyses with relatively low (40-60%) Sorenson similarity, indicating that most regional small mammal communities were well-differentiated. Despite data limitations, 66 new distribution records for 21 sites are reported for the SGDA. Total species richness (including historical records) was highest in the Nama-Karoo (19), particularly the Upper Karoo bioregion (19, mean 6.45 ±2.16, 11 sites), followed by the Grassland (16), and Albany Thicket (5) biomes. Total species richness records for most sites/regions fell within the iChao2 CI bounds, thus integrating trapping and historical records provided a relatively robust data set for subsequent spatial diversity analyses. However, even the total species richness dataset is likely to underestimate true diversity owing to not sampling arboreal species or detecting some cryptic species. Generalized linear analyses indicated that small mammal diversity indices were significantly associated with certain environmental/climatic parameters (livestock, drought). Despite the west to east increase in precipitation, highest diversity was concentrated in the arid north-west Nama-Karoo where dwarf shrubs and succulents predominate. This suggests that environmental and niche filtering are significant proximate factors shaping small mammal assemblages. No significant effects of biotic interactions (particularly competition following Diamond's (1975) first two rules) or resource-mediated niche limitations were evident for SGDA species assemblages. However, results for the Nama-Karoo (i.e. for a natural phytogeographical rather than geoeconomically-defined area) were significant suggesting that biotic interactions may also be proximate factors shaping local assemblages. Site assemblages were significantly nested, indicating that species at species-poor sites were subsets of those at richer sites; and thus, that site communities may have been structured by either long-term (ultimate) regional biogeographic processes (e.g. immigration and extinction related to distances between sites) or habitat filtering operating at local scales. Data deficiencies notwithstanding, my results present the most comprehensive landscape-level analysis for small mammals, and the only baseline dataset (based on randomized sampling) for the Greater Karoo and SGDA. While my results must be treated with caution, I am confident that the recommendations I make on species, sites and regions potentially vulnerable will be a useful guide to possible impacts of fracking in the study area.

Invasive plant species have widespread effects on the ecosystems they inhabit. Extensive research has been done on the economic and ecological impact of invasive species in relation to native plant species, but little is known about the effect of these species on native fauna. My study examined the impact of an invasive plant species Elaeagnus umbellata (autumn olive) on small mammals populations in southern Illinois. Elaeagnus umbellata is a native shrub of southeast Asia and was introduced to the United States in the 1830s. It is now the fifth most abundant invasive plant species in the state of Illinois. To determine the impact of this invasive shrub on small mammal populations, Sherman traps were set up in six separate trapping webs, three in upland forests with heavy E. umbellata cover and three in upland forests with little to no E. umbellata cover (control). Trapping spanned three seasons from March-August 2013. Through the use of capture and release methods, individuals were measured, weighed, and marked for possible recapture. Beginning in season 3, Cuterebra fontinella (bot fly) abundance in small mammals was also assessed. Differences in relative abundance of small mammal populations were determined using a repeated measures ANOVA with a Tukey test. T-tests were used to determine any significant difference among small mammals between forest types. Very little difference was found among the measured variables between the invaded and control forest sites. Prevalance of C. fontinella was also similar, but the resulting percentage of infection was much higher when compared to other studies in the literature. These results indicate there is little effect of E. umbellata on small mammal populations, although the long-term impacts of this invasive species may need further research.

A large proportion of the earth's surface is dedicated to food production, and agriculture is widely acknowledged to influence local biodiversity via habitat loss and degradation. Landscape genetics is an emerging field which can provide detailed understanding of how wildlife populations are influenced by landscape configuration and composition but the approach is yet to be fully integrated with agroecology. When addressing landscape genetics questions, small mammals may provide insight; they may act as model organisms, they are abundant, they are relatively easy to sample and they may have important ecological roles within arable ecosystems. This thesis merged the study of arable landscapes, landscape genetics and small mammals, to develop what is known about the landscape genetics of wild species in this dynamic habitat type. To decide upon a study organism, small mammals were surveyed at an example arable field site. Wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) were found to be the most abundant species and a microsatellite marker multiplex was developed for genotyping individuals. Two aspects of their landscape genetics in arable habitat were investigated. First, the possibility of temporal patterns in fine scale genetic structure of arable populations was explored, since this had not been investigated previously. Next, inter-population genetic differentiation was examined to determine whether arable habitat acted as a barrier to gene flow for this species. At the fine scale, three genetically distinct clusters of wood mice were identified and temporal variation in the spatial pattern was confirmed. There was no evidence that arable habitat acted as a barrier to gene flow for this species in comparison to populations in urban habitat, which showed significant differentiation. It is hoped that the landscape genetic insights provided by this thesis will encourage greater momentum for conducting landscape genetics studies in agricultural habitat.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biology / Brett K. Sandercock / Habitat heterogeneity is a key driver of biodiversity in many ecosystems. In native ecosystems, habitat heterogeneity can arise from multiple drivers including nutrients, topoedaphic conditions, and ecological disturbance. Historically, the prairies of North America existed as a heterogeneous mosaic of habitat conditions created by the interaction of fire and grazing by native ungulates. The focus of many grazing systems has been to minimize disturbance caused by grazing by promoting uniform distributions of grazing animals across management units. Patch-burn grazing is an alternative rangeland management practice that has been proposed to restore historical patch dynamics and biodiversity to rangelands by simulating historical disturbance processes. In my dissertation research, I tested the hypothesis that patch- burn grazing restores habitat heterogeneity to rangelands, and that the resulting habitat heterogeneity can promote biodiversity of native wildlife. I focus on responses of small mammals and coyotes to patch-burn grazing to gain a better understanding of wildlife responses to rangeland management, and because grassland mammals are an ecologically important group. My 3.5-year field study of habitat and small mammal responses to rangeland management showed that: 1) patch-burn grazing created greater heterogeneity in vegetative structure and composition of plant functional groups than in positive and negative controls; 2) habitat heterogeneity created by the interaction of fire and grazing increased small mammal richness and diversity compared to a negative control managed for uniform grazing distributions; 3) the interaction of fire and grazing structured small mammal communities in tallgrass prairie; and 4) population dynamic responses of small mammals to fire and grazing disturbance were species- specific. My 3-year study of coyote survival and resource selection revealed that: 1) rangeland management influences resource selection by coyotes in seasons when they depend on small mammal prey, but not during other seasons; and 2) anthropogenic sources of mortality are important for coyotes at a protected area, even in the absence of harvest. My field results show that restoring the drivers of historical patch dynamics to managed rangelands and publicly held grasslands that are not currently grazed could have profound effects on biodiversity conservation in North America, while continuing to provide ecosystem services to society.

Estudos sobre seleção de presas podem apresentar resultados bastante diferentes dependendo do predador analisado. Predadores com diferentes técnicas de caça, como as aves de rapina e os mamíferos carnívoros, podem selecionar diferentes tipos de presas. Estudos sistemáticos sobre esse tema ainda são escassos no Brasil. Por esse motivo, o objetivo deste trabalho foi a análise da seletividade na dieta de três predadores quanto ao consumo de pequenos mamíferos na Estação Ecológica de Itirapina, SP. Para a suindara (Tyto alba), a seletividade de presas foi avaliada nos níveis de: espécie, tamanho, idade e sexo. A coruja-buraqueira (Athene cunicularia) foi estudada quanto ao consumo diferenciado nos níveis de espécie, tamanho e idade das presas. Para o lobo guará (Chrysocyon brachyurus), apenas a seleção de espécies foi possível. Foram utilizados restos de ossos (mandíbulas e cinturas pélvicas) das presas encontradas nas pelotas e fezes desses predadores para identificação da espécie e do sexo dos indivíduos, e para a quantificação do número de indivíduos consumidos. A análise de seleção de espécie foi feita por meio de comparações entre a proporção das mesmas encontradas nas dietas e no ambiente. Para isto, foram utilizados o teste G e o intervalo de confiança de Bonferroni. O consumo preferencial por um determinado sexo foi avaliado pelo teste G ou pelo teste exato de Fisher. O tamanho dos pequenos mamíferos na dieta foi calculado por meio de equações de regressão desenvolvidas para cada espécie dessas presas. O Teste de Mann-Whitney foi utilizado para comparações entre o tamanho das presas nas dietas e no ambiente. As idades dos roedores encontrados nas dietas e nos ambientes foram comparadas utilizando-se o teste G. A suindara foi mais seletiva do que a buraqueira no consumo de espécies de pequenos mamíferos, embora ambas incluam as mesmas espécies nas suas dietas. Calomys tener e Oligoryzomys nigripes foram os roedores mais predados pelas corujas. A seleção de indivíduos menores e de juvenis de C. tener pela suindara e de sub-adultos dessa presa pela buraqueira poderia ser entendido pelo modo de forrageamento de cada coruja e características biológicas da presa. Por outro lado, por ser um animal de maior porte, era esperado por parte do lobo-guará o consumo de presas maiores, como Clyomys bishopi. A seleção por indivíduos menores de C. tener pelas duas corujas indica predação de indivíduos mais vulneráveis. Assim a predação diferencial por roedores pequenos pode não ser devido a predação seletiva por parte das corujas, mas sim devido à alta vulnerabilidade dos mesmos, devido a sua inexperiência e por serem errantes. Pode-se perceber por meio deste estudo que, dependendo da localidade e das diferentes composições/abundancia de presas, os predadores parecem adotar diferentes estratégias. Dentro de uma mesma localidade esse recurso é utilizado de forma diferenciada pelos três predadores, pelo menos em termos de proporções, tamanho e idade. Estudos mais amplos e detalhados com utilização de metodologia padronizada, englobando todos os componentes de uma guilda trófica, além de se levar em conta as muitas variáveis ambientais, torne possível entender o papel de cada espécie na comunidade. / Prey selection studies may result in different conclusions depending on the analysed forager. Predators with different foraging modes, such as raptors and carnivorous mammals, may select different prey types. This kind of study is still scarce in Brazil. So, the goal of this research is the analysis of small mammal selection in the diet of three predators at Itirapina Ecological Station, SP. Analysis of prey selection by the Barn Owl (Tyto alba) was conducted in relation to species, size, age and sex. The Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia) was studied in relation to the consumption of small mammal species, size and age. The Maned Wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) was only evaluated concerning prey species selection. Remains of bones (mandibles and pelvic girdles) found in pellets and faeces of predators were utilized to identify prey species, sex and to quantify number of consumed individuals. Analysis of prey species selection was conducted by comparisons between proportion of prey found in the diet and in environment, applying G test and Bonferroni confidence intervals. Differential sex consumption was evaluated by G test and Fisher exact test. Mann-Whitney test was employed to compare prey size in the diet and in the environment. Rodent ages found in pellets/ faeces and in the field were compared by G test. The Barn Owl was more selective than the Burrowing Owl in relation to prey species consumption, though both of them include the same small mammal species in their diets. Calomys tener and Oligoryzomys nigripes were the most preyed on rodents by the two owls. Small-sized and juvenile individuals of C. tener were more consumed by the Barn Owl, whereas sub-adults were more preyed on by the Burrowing Owl. Differences may be due to foraging mode of each owl and biological characteristics of prey. The consumption of larger prey, such as Clyomys bishopi, by the larger predator, the Maned Wolf, was expected. Selection of smaller individuals within species may suggest predation of more vulnerable prey. So small-sized rodent selection may not result from active predation by the owls, but from higher vulnerability of these prey. Based on this study, depending on locality and differences in prey composition/abundance, predators may adopt different strategies. In the same area, resource was utilized in different manner by these predators, at least, in terms of prey proportion in the diet, size and age. Further studies using the same methodology, involving all components of trophic guilds, besides environmental variables, may better illustrate the role of each species in community.

Estudos sobre seleção de presas podem apresentar resultados bastante diferentes dependendo do predador analisado. Predadores com diferentes técnicas de caça, como as aves de rapina e os mamíferos carnívoros, podem selecionar diferentes tipos de presas. Estudos sistemáticos sobre esse tema ainda são escassos no Brasil. Por esse motivo, o objetivo deste trabalho foi a análise da seletividade na dieta de três predadores quanto ao consumo de pequenos mamíferos na Estação Ecológica de Itirapina, SP. Para a suindara (Tyto alba), a seletividade de presas foi avaliada nos níveis de: espécie, tamanho, idade e sexo. A coruja-buraqueira (Athene cunicularia) foi estudada quanto ao consumo diferenciado nos níveis de espécie, tamanho e idade das presas. Para o lobo guará (Chrysocyon brachyurus), apenas a seleção de espécies foi possível. Foram utilizados restos de ossos (mandíbulas e cinturas pélvicas) das presas encontradas nas pelotas e fezes desses predadores para identificação da espécie e do sexo dos indivíduos, e para a quantificação do número de indivíduos consumidos. A análise de seleção de espécie foi feita por meio de comparações entre a proporção das mesmas encontradas nas dietas e no ambiente. Para isto, foram utilizados o teste G e o intervalo de confiança de Bonferroni. O consumo preferencial por um determinado sexo foi avaliado pelo teste G ou pelo teste exato de Fisher. O tamanho dos pequenos mamíferos na dieta foi calculado por meio de equações de regressão desenvolvidas para cada espécie dessas presas. O Teste de Mann-Whitney foi utilizado para comparações entre o tamanho das presas nas dietas e no ambiente. As idades dos roedores encontrados nas dietas e nos ambientes foram comparadas utilizando-se o teste G. A suindara foi mais seletiva do que a buraqueira no consumo de espécies de pequenos mamíferos, embora ambas incluam as mesmas espécies nas suas dietas. Calomys tener e Oligoryzomys nigripes foram os roedores mais predados pelas corujas. A seleção de indivíduos menores e de juvenis de C. tener pela suindara e de sub-adultos dessa presa pela buraqueira poderia ser entendido pelo modo de forrageamento de cada coruja e características biológicas da presa. Por outro lado, por ser um animal de maior porte, era esperado por parte do lobo-guará o consumo de presas maiores, como Clyomys bishopi. A seleção por indivíduos menores de C. tener pelas duas corujas indica predação de indivíduos mais vulneráveis. Assim a predação diferencial por roedores pequenos pode não ser devido a predação seletiva por parte das corujas, mas sim devido à alta vulnerabilidade dos mesmos, devido a sua inexperiência e por serem errantes. Pode-se perceber por meio deste estudo que, dependendo da localidade e das diferentes composições/abundancia de presas, os predadores parecem adotar diferentes estratégias. Dentro de uma mesma localidade esse recurso é utilizado de forma diferenciada pelos três predadores, pelo menos em termos de proporções, tamanho e idade. Estudos mais amplos e detalhados com utilização de metodologia padronizada, englobando todos os componentes de uma guilda trófica, além de se levar em conta as muitas variáveis ambientais, torne possível entender o papel de cada espécie na comunidade. / Prey selection studies may result in different conclusions depending on the analysed forager. Predators with different foraging modes, such as raptors and carnivorous mammals, may select different prey types. This kind of study is still scarce in Brazil. So, the goal of this research is the analysis of small mammal selection in the diet of three predators at Itirapina Ecological Station, SP. Analysis of prey selection by the Barn Owl (Tyto alba) was conducted in relation to species, size, age and sex. The Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia) was studied in relation to the consumption of small mammal species, size and age. The Maned Wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) was only evaluated concerning prey species selection. Remains of bones (mandibles and pelvic girdles) found in pellets and faeces of predators were utilized to identify prey species, sex and to quantify number of consumed individuals. Analysis of prey species selection was conducted by comparisons between proportion of prey found in the diet and in environment, applying G test and Bonferroni confidence intervals. Differential sex consumption was evaluated by G test and Fisher exact test. Mann-Whitney test was employed to compare prey size in the diet and in the environment. Rodent ages found in pellets/ faeces and in the field were compared by G test. The Barn Owl was more selective than the Burrowing Owl in relation to prey species consumption, though both of them include the same small mammal species in their diets. Calomys tener and Oligoryzomys nigripes were the most preyed on rodents by the two owls. Small-sized and juvenile individuals of C. tener were more consumed by the Barn Owl, whereas sub-adults were more preyed on by the Burrowing Owl. Differences may be due to foraging mode of each owl and biological characteristics of prey. The consumption of larger prey, such as Clyomys bishopi, by the larger predator, the Maned Wolf, was expected. Selection of smaller individuals within species may suggest predation of more vulnerable prey. So small-sized rodent selection may not result from active predation by the owls, but from higher vulnerability of these prey. Based on this study, depending on locality and differences in prey composition/abundance, predators may adopt different strategies. In the same area, resource was utilized in different manner by these predators, at least, in terms of prey proportion in the diet, size and age. Further studies using the same methodology, involving all components of trophic guilds, besides environmental variables, may better illustrate the role of each species in community.

Japanese knotweed is an invasive plant that grows in disturbed sites across Nova Scotia. This study recorded an average spring growth rate of 6cm per day until reaching a canopy height exceeding 2m in June. Knotweed stands contained on average 17 stems and 8.0kg of fresh biomass per m2. Leaf cover was significantly greater in knotweed patches versus grass and shrub habitats in riparian ecosystems. Plant diversity in knotweed patches was nil, yet invertebrate diversity and abundances were similar across habitats. Small mammal tracks were more abundant in knotweed than shrub patches, but not as much as grass plots. Two herbicides were applied at four different dates in 2011. The following year, Aminopyralid was ineffective while Imazapyr treatments successfully reduced knotweed biomass, density, height, and leaf cover. Imazapyr application is recommended at full growth (June) or flowering (August). This project provides new information on an invasive weed in eastern Canada.

The golden mouse (Ochrotomys nuttalli), a state-threatened species in Illinois, is sympatric throughout most of its geographic range with the ubiquitous white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus). The degree of interspecific competitive interaction between these species has been investigated by previous researchers, with often conflicting results. I live trapped and marked both species on two grids from 21 May 2008 through 8 May 2009. One grid was the control area; from the second grid I removed white-footed mice. Habitat on the grids was very similar for six measured habitat variables. My objectives were to document the extent of competition between the two species as indicated by a population density or behavioral response of golden mice to removal of white-footed mice on the experimental grid, and to determine if white-footed mouse presence or habitat variables affected the capture of golden mice. During 6,528 trap nights per grid, I captured a total of 22 individual O. nuttalli and 66 P. leucopus on the control grid, and 48 O. nuttalli and 202 P. leucopus on the removal grid. Compared to previous studies (Rose, 2008), the number of individual golden mice captured on my two sites (n = 70) was very large. Whereas I expected an increase in numbers and space use of golden mice upon removal of Peromyscus, the only statistically significant change was an apparent decrease in space use--there was no population density change. These results, which may indicate a lack of interspecific competition, are more likely the result of experimental design flaws, especially considering the following results. The likelihood of trapping a golden mouse at any given station on the control site was unaffected by any of the six habitat variables. White-footed mouse presence significantly decreased the likelihood of capturing golden mice on both sites. These results were the same for both elevated and ground traps. On the experimental site, golden mice changed from predominantly arboreal space use before Peromyscus removal to equal space use between arboreal and ground habitat after Peromyscusremoval. These results illustrate a spatially segregated habitat with competitively superior white-footed mice dominating the ground level microhabitat and golden mice staying predominantly in elevated microhabitat. My study, and others, demonstrate that golden mice in southern Illinois are likely habitat generalists (Morzillo et al., 2003), competitively inferior to Peromyscus(Feldhamer and Maycroft, 1992), and excluded from certain microhabitat; although it may be they actually prefer different microhabitats.

No description available.