Yes / Hot melt extrusion has been used to produce a solid dispersion of the thermolabile drug artemisinin. Formulation and process conditions were optimised prior to evaluation of dissolution and biopharmaceutical performance. Soluplus®, a low Tg amphiphilic polymer especially designed for solid dispersions enabled melt extrusion at 110ºC although some drug-polymer incompatibility was observed. Addition of 5% citric acid as a pH modifier was found to suppress the degradation. The area under plasma concentration time curve (AUC0-24hr) and peak plasma concentration (Cmax) were four times higher for the modified solid dispersion compared to that of pure artemisinin. / EPSRC grant no (EP/J003360/1) and UKIERI: UK-India Education and Research Initiative (TPR 26).

Hot melt extrusion has attracted recent interest from the pharmaceutical industry and academia as an innovative drug delivery technology. This novel technique has been shown to be a viable and robust method for preparing different drug delivery systems including pellets, implants, tablets, capsules and granules. The aim of this research was to understand hot melt extrusion processing and explore its pharmaceutical applications. Two applications of hot melt extrusion (HME) have been investigated to improve the properties of poorly soluble thermolabile drugs; polymeric solid dispersions and solid state polymorphic transformation. HME is a solvent free, continuous and readily scalable technique which is increasingly being considered as a viable alternative to conventionally used batch techniques. However, the high temperature and shear forces imparted by the extrusion process can limit its applications with heat sensitive active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). Artemisinin was selected as a model drug which being thermolabile in nature and possesses processing challenges to processing HME. A low Tg amphiphillic copolymer, Soluplus® was selected as a matrix material. Drug-polymer compatibility was studied using rotational rheometry and thermal characterisation. The drug was found to be completely dissolved within the polymer, although some discolouration of the mixture was observed, indicating degradation of the API. The addition of a small percentage of citric acid to the formulation was found to prevent this degradation by increasing the pH. The dissolution profile of the formulation was approximately five times higher compared to that of the pure drug. The pharmacokinetic study was carried out using Albino rats to calculate bioavailability. The area under plasma concentration time curve (AUC0-24hr) and peak plasma concentration (Cmax) were four times higher for the prepared solid dispersion compared to that of pure artemisinin. Extruded solid dispersions were found to be amorphous in nature and maintained stability for 2 years. A second route to improving the solubility of poorly soluble APIs was also investigated. It was found that under carefully controlled conditions, high temperature extrusion (HTE) could be used to achieve polymorphic transformation with a number of APIs. This solvent-free continuous process was demonstrated with artemisinin, piracetam, carbamazepine and chlorpropamide. Artemisinin was used as a detailed case study of stability, solvent mediated transformation and mechanism of polymrophic transformation during extrusion, using computational modelling and model shear flows. At high temperature, phase transformation from orthorhombic to triclinic crystals was found to occur via the vapour phase. Under mechanical stress the crystalline structure was disrupted, leading to new surfaces being continuously formed and exposed to high temperatures; thus accelerating the transformation process. Polymorphic transformation during HTE was found to comprise three stages; i) preheating and conveying; ii) vapour phase transformation and size reduction and iii) continuous transformation and agglomeration. The triclinic form showed four times greater dissolution rate as compared to the orthorhombic form. The triclinic form showed two fold increase in bioavailability in Albino rats.

Hot melt extrusion has attracted recent interest from the pharmaceutical industry and academia as an innovative drug delivery technology. This novel technique has been shown to be a viable and robust method for preparing different drug delivery systems including pellets, implants, tablets, capsules and granules. The aim of this research was to understand hot melt extrusion processing and explore its pharmaceutical applications. Two applications of hot melt extrusion (HME) have been investigated to improve the properties of poorly soluble thermolabile drugs; polymeric solid dispersions and solid state polymorphic transformation. HME is a solvent free, continuous and readily scalable technique which is increasingly being considered as a viable alternative to conventionally used batch techniques. However, the high temperature and shear forces imparted by the extrusion process can limit its applications with heat sensitive active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). Artemisinin was selected as a model drug which being thermolabile in nature and possesses processing challenges to processing HME. A low Tg amphiphillic copolymer, Soluplus® was selected as a matrix material. Drug-polymer compatibility was studied using rotational rheometry and thermal characterisation. The drug was found to be completely dissolved within the polymer, although some discolouration of the mixture was observed, indicating degradation of the API. The addition of a small percentage of citric acid to the formulation was found to prevent this degradation by increasing the pH. The dissolution profile of the formulation was approximately five times higher compared to that of the pure drug. The pharmacokinetic study was carried out using Albino rats to calculate bioavailability. The area under plasma concentration time curve (AUC0-24hr) and peak plasma concentration (Cmax) were four times higher for the prepared solid dispersion compared to that of pure artemisinin. Extruded solid dispersions were found to be amorphous in nature and maintained stability for 2 years. A second route to improving the solubility of poorly soluble APIs was also investigated. It was found that under carefully controlled conditions, high temperature extrusion (HTE) could be used to achieve polymorphic transformation with a number of APIs. This solvent-free continuous process was demonstrated with artemisinin, piracetam, carbamazepine and chlorpropamide. Artemisinin was used as a detailed case study of stability, solvent mediated transformation and mechanism of polymrophic transformation during extrusion, using computational modelling and model shear flows. At high temperature, phase transformation from orthorhombic to triclinic crystals was found to occur via the vapour phase. Under mechanical stress the crystalline structure was disrupted, leading to new surfaces being continuously formed and exposed to high temperatures; thus accelerating the transformation process. Polymorphic transformation during HTE was found to comprise three stages; i) preheating and conveying; ii) vapour phase transformation and size reduction and iii) continuous transformation and agglomeration. The triclinic form showed four times greater dissolution rate as compared to the orthorhombic form. The triclinic form showed two fold increase in bioavailability in Albino rats.

The use of solid dispersions to formulate poorly water soluble drugs is a growing field in the pharmaceutical sciences. Hot-melt extrusion is a common method for producing dispersions. However, bench-top extruders require large amounts of powder to run and are inappropriate for early formulation screens. Plastic and glass syringes are readily available in most laboratories. 250 mg of drug-polymer blend is placed in a plastic syringe body that has the tip covered with a bent needle. The syringe is heated for 5 minutes and the extrudate is pushed through the syringe. Extrudates are characterized by differential scanning calorimetry and powder x-ray diffraction. Acetaminophen, griseofulvin, indomethacin, salicylamide, and sulfamethoxazole extruded with polyvinylpyrrolidone K12 match or exceed the performance of solvent evaporated controls. Glass syringes can be used when polymers have processing ranges above the melting point of the plastic syringes. Syringe extrusion is effectively demonstrated as a rapid process for early formulation screening.

No / Hot melt extrusion is a continuous process with wide industrial applicability. Till current date, there have been no reports on the formulation of extrudates for topical treatment of dermatological diseases. The aim of the present work was to prepare and characterize medicated hot melt extrudates based on Soluplus polymer and nicotinamide, and to explore their applicability in acne treatment. The extrudates were characterized using DSC, FTIR, XRD, and DVS. The extrudates were also tested for their skin adhesion potential, ability to deposit nicotinamide in different skin layers, and their clinical efficacy in acne patients. The 10% nicotinamide extrudates exhibited amorphous nature which was reserved during storage, with no chemical interaction between nicotinamide and Soluplus. Upon contrasting the skin adhesion and drug deposition of extrudates and nicotinamide gel, it was evident that the extrudates displayed significantly higher adhesion and drug deposition reaching 4.8 folds, 5.3 folds, and 4.3 folds more in the stratum corneum, epidermis and dermis, respectively. Furthermore, the extrudates significantly reduced the total number of acne lesions in patients by 61.3% compared to 42.14% with the nicotinamide gel. Soluplus extrudates are promising topical drug delivery means for the treatment of dermatological diseases.

The feasibility of hot melt extrusion (HME) was explored for development of amorphous solid dispersion systems. Controlled release formulations were developed using a cellulose based derivative, AffinisolTMHPMC 100cP and 4M grades. BCS class II drugs ibuprofen and posaconazole were selected due to their difference in glass transition temperature and lipophilicity. This study focused on investigation of the impact the material attributes and process parameters on the critical quality attributes in preparation of amorphous solid dispersions using hot melt extrusion. The critical quality attributes were sub divided into three main attributes of material, process and product. Rheology of ibuprofen-Affinisol 100cP from melt phase to extrudate phase was tracked. A partial factorial design was carried out to investigate the critical parameters affecting HME. For optimisation of 40%IBU-Affinisol 100cP blends, a feed rate of 0.6kg/hr, screw speed of 500rpm and screw configuration with two mixing elements were found to be optimum for single phase extrudates. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy was found to be an indirect technique of choice in predicting the maximum ibuprofen drug load within extrudates. Prediction was based on the prepared extrudates without charging them to stability conditions. An alternative strategy of incorporation of di-carboxylic acids to increase the dissolution of posaconazole-Affinisol 4M blends was investigated. Succinic acid and L- malic acid incorporation was found to increase the dissolution of posaconazole. Although, the extrudates crystallised out quicker than the naïve posaconazole-Affinisol 4M, but free posaconazole formed eutectic and co-crystal with succinic and L-malic acid within extrudates. This lead to an increase in dissolution of the extrudates compared to day 0.

The feasibility of the injection moulding (IM) was explored for the development of novel drug delivery systems. Controlled release formulations were developed using a substituted cellulose derivative, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS) and a graft co-polymer (Soluplus®). BCS class II drugs ibuprofen and the felodipine were selected based on their physicochemical properties. In the present work, a homogenous dispersion of drugs in the polymer matrices was achieved using Hot Melt Extrusion (HME) and extruded pellets obtained were used for the development of the injection moulded systems. Four systems were developed using the IM consisting of ibuprofen-HPMCAS, ibuprofen-Soluplus®, felodipine-PEO-HPMCAS and felodipine-Soluplus®. The ibuprofen acts as a good plasticiser compared to felodipine therefore, felodipine containing IM systems required a plasticiser (PEO) when processed with HPMCAS. The analysis of extruded pellets and injection moulded systems using modulated DSC (MDSC) and Raman spectroscopy confirmed the formation of an amorphous molecular dispersion (i.e solid solution) in the case of all four systems. The phase separation behaviour and the amorphous stability of the systems was studied at various stress conditions. This revealed the “surface crystallisation” behaviour of the ibuprofen-HPMCAS systems. Temperature-composition phase diagram constructed based on the melting point depression and the Flory-Huggins lattice solution theory provided the explanation for the phase separation and crystallisation behaviour of ibuprofen-HPMCAS systems. The advanced characterisation techniques like DMA, 2D XRD and 3D laser microscopy provided the detailed understanding of crystal habits, phase seperation and surface crystallisation. The significant effect of the stress conditions on the rate of shrinkage was observed where, higher shrinkage tendency of a HPMCAS IM system was observed compared to Soluplus® IM systems. The extruded pellets provided the faster drug release compared to the moulded tablets suggests the effect of particle size as well as the densification during IM on the dissolution rate of the dosage form. The nature of the polymer and processing history were the contributing factors for the dissolution of the dosage forms. / The thesis is hardbound in two volumes. Volume II starts at Chapter 5, page 135.

Yes / In this paper we study the effectiveness of three well known polymers: inulin, Soluplus and PVP in stabilizing amorphous form of nimesulide (NMS) drug. The re-crystallization tendency of pure drug as well as measured drug-polymer systems were examined at isothermal conditions by using broadband dielectric spectroscopy (BDS), and at non-isothermal conditions by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Our investigation has shown that the crystallization half-life time of pure NMS at 328 K is equal to 33 minutes. We found that this time can be prolonged to 40 years after adding to NMS 20% of PVP polymer. This polymer proved to be the best NMS’s stabilizer, while the worst stabilization effect was found after adding the inulin to NMS. Additionally, our DSC, BDS and FTIR studies indicate that for suppression of NMS’s re-crystallization in NMS-PVP system, the two mechanisms are responsible: the polymeric steric hindrances as well as the antiplastization effect excerted by the excipient. / The authors J.K., Z.W., K.G. and M.P., are grateful for the financial support received within the Project No. 2015/16/W/NZ7/00404 (SYMFONIA 3) from the National Science Centre, Poland. H.M. and L.T. are supported by Science Foundation Ireland under grant No. 12/RC/2275 (Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceuticals Centre).

La principale difficulté lors de l'administration orale d'un ingrédient pharmaceutique actif (API) est de garantir que la dose clinique de l’API sera dissoute dans le volume disponible de liquides gastro-intestinaux. Toutefois, environ 40% des API sur le marché et près de 90% des molécules en cours de développement sont peu solubles dans l’eau et présentent une faible absorption par voie orale, ce qui entraîne une faible biodisponibilité. Les dispersions solides amorphes (ASD) sont considérées comme l’une des stratégies plus efficaces pour résoudre des problèmes de solubilité des principes actifs peu solubles dans l’eau et, ainsi, améliorer leur biodisponibilité orale. En dépit de leur introduction il y a plus de 50 ans comme stratégie pour améliorer l’administration orale des API, la formation et la stabilité physique des ASD font toujours l'objet de recherches approfondies. En effet, plusieurs facteurs peuvent influer sur la stabilité physique des ASD pendant le stockage, parmi lesquels la température de transition vitreuse du mélange binaire API-polymère, la solubilité apparente de l'API dans le polymère, les interactions entre l'API et le polymère et le procédé de fabrication. Cette thèse consistait en deux parties qui avaient pour objectif le développement de nouvelles formulations sous forme d’ASD d'un antirétroviral, l'Efavirenz (EFV), dispersé dans un polymère amphiphile, le Soluplus, en utilisant deux procédés différents, le séchage par atomisation (SD) et l'extrusion à chaud (HME). EFV est l’API BCS de classe II de notre choix car c’est un API qui représente un défi pour les nouvelles formulations. En effet, il a besoin d’ASD plus fortement concentrées, pour lesquelles la stabilité chimique et physique pendant le stockage et la dissolution seront essentielles. Dans le but de développer de manière rationnelle les ASDs EFV- Soluplus à forte concentration, la première partie s'est concentrée sur la construction d'un diagramme de phases EFV-Soluplus en fonction de la composition et de la température. Le diagramme de phases a été construit à partir d'une étude thermique de recristallisation d'un ASD sursaturé (85 %m EFV), générée par séchage par atomisation. À notre connaissance, il s'agit de la première étude à présenter un diagramme de phase pour ce système binaire. Ce diagramme de phases est très utile et démontre que la solubilité de l'EFV dans les solutions varie de 20 %m (25 °C) à 30 %m (40 °C). Les ASD de EFV dans le Soluplus contenant plus de 30 %m d'EFV doivent être surveillées pendant le stockage dans des conditions typiques de température. Ce diagramme de phases peut être considéré comme un outil de pré-formulation pour les chercheurs qui étudient de nouvelles ASD d'EFV dans le Soluplus afin de prédire la stabilité (thermodynamique et cinétique). Les ASD préparées par différentes techniques peuvent afficher des différences dans leurs propriétés physicochimiques. La deuxième partie de cette thèse portait sur la fabrication d’ASD par des procédés HME et SD. Cette étude montre clairement que la formation d’ASD est une stratégie de formulation utile pour améliorer la solubilité dans l'eau et la vitesse de dissolution de l'EFV à partir de mélanges binaires EFV-Soluplus. Les procédés de fabrication (HME et SD) se sont révélés efficaces pour générer des ASD dans une large gamme de compositions en EFV. L'optimisation du ratio EFV-Soluplus peut être utilisée pour adapter la libération cinétique des ASD. Le choix d’une charge EFV élevée dépassant la solubilité thermodynamique de l’EFV dans le Soluplus est possible, mais il convient de prendre en compte sa stabilité cinétique dans le temps. / The main difficulty when an Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) is orally administered is to guarantee that the clinical dose of the API will be dissolved in the available volume of gastrointestinal fluids. However, about 40% of APIs with market approval and nearly 90% of molecules in the discovery pipeline are poorly water-soluble and exhibits a poor oral absorption, which leads to a weak bioavailability. Amorphous solid dispersions (ASD) are considered as one of the most effective strategies to solve solubility limitations of poorly-water soluble compounds and hence, enhance their oral bioavailability. Despite their introduction as technical strategy to enhance oral APIs bioavailability more than 50 years ago, ASD formation and physical stability remains a subject of intense research. Indeed, several factors can influence the physical storage stability of ASD, among them, the glass transition temperature of the API-carrier binary mixture, the apparent solubility of the API in the carrier, interactions between API and carrier, and the manufacturing process. This thesis consisted of two parts that aim on developing new formulations of ASD of an antiretroviral API, Efavirenz (EFV), dispersed in an amphiphilic polymer, Soluplus, by using two different processes, Spray-drying (SD) and Hot-melt extrusion (HME). EFV is the class II BCS API of our choice because it is a challenging API for new formulations. It needs higher-dosed ASDs, for which chemical and physical stability during storage and dissolution will be critical. Aiming a rational development of high-loaded EFV-Soluplus ASDs, the first part focused on the construction of a temperature- composition EFV-Soluplus phase diagram. The phase-diagram was constructed from a thermal study of recrystallization of a supersaturated ASD (85 wt% in EFV), generated by spray drying. To our knowledge, this is the first study reporting a phase-diagram for this binary system. This phase-diagram is very useful and demonstrated that the EFV solubility in Soluplus ranges from 20 wt% (25 °C) to 30 wt% (40 °C). ASD of EFV in Soluplus containing more than 30 wt% of EFV should be monitored over storage under typical temperature conditions. This phase-diagram might be considered as a preformulation tool for researchers studying novel ASD of EFV in Soluplus, to predict (thermodynamic and kinetic) stability. ASD prepared by different techniques can display differences in their physicochemical properties. The second part of this thesis focused on the manufacturing of ASD by HME or SD processes. This study clearly shows that ASD is a useful formulation strategy to improve the aqueous solubility and the dissolution rate of EFV from EFV-Soluplus binary mixtures. HME and SD manufacturing processes demonstrated to be efficient to generate ASDs in a large range of compositions and loads of EFV. The optimization of EFV to Soluplus ratio can be used to tailor the release kinetics from ASD. The choice of a high EFV load exceeding the thermodynamic solid solubility in Soluplus is possible but it needs the consideration of its kinetic stability over time.

The feasibility of the injection moulding (IM) was explored for the development of novel drug delivery systems. Controlled release formulations were developed using a substituted cellulose derivative, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS) and a graft co-polymer (Soluplus®). BCS class II drugs ibuprofen and the felodipine were selected based on their physicochemical properties. In the present work, a homogenous dispersion of drugs in the polymer matrices was achieved using Hot Melt Extrusion (HME) and extruded pellets obtained were used for the development of the injection moulded systems. Four systems were developed using the IM consisting of ibuprofen-HPMCAS, ibuprofen-Soluplus®, felodipine-PEO-HPMCAS and felodipine-Soluplus®. The ibuprofen acts as a good plasticiser compared to felodipine therefore, felodipine containing IM systems required a plasticiser (PEO) when processed with HPMCAS. The analysis of extruded pellets and injection moulded systems using modulated DSC (MDSC) and Raman spectroscopy confirmed the formation of an amorphous molecular dispersion (i.e solid solution) in the case of all four systems. The phase separation behaviour and the amorphous stability of the systems was studied at various stress conditions. This revealed the “surface crystallisation” behaviour of the ibuprofen-HPMCAS systems. Temperature-composition phase diagram constructed based on the melting point depression and the Flory-Huggins lattice solution theory provided the explanation for the phase separation and crystallisation behaviour of ibuprofen-HPMCAS systems. The advanced characterisation techniques like DMA, 2D XRD and 3D laser microscopy provided the detailed understanding of crystal habits, phase seperation and surface crystallisation. The significant effect of the stress conditions on the rate of shrinkage was observed where, higher shrinkage tendency of a HPMCAS IM system was observed compared to Soluplus® IM systems. The extruded pellets provided the faster drug release compared to the moulded tablets suggests the effect of particle size as well as the densification during IM on the dissolution rate of the dosage form. The nature of the polymer and processing history were the contributing factors for the dissolution of the dosage forms.