Many leisure researchers have examined the recreation specialization construct with the belief that recreationists progress along a specialization continuum, from low to high, the longer they participate in an activity. Building on other researchers' conclusions that recreationists do not necessarily progress over time, this study sought to better understand whether people truly desire to progress. Competition, sociability, and skill development variables were proposed as measures that would more accurately describe an intermediate career trajectory of specialization. This intermediate career trajectory of specialization was called flatlining, because recreationists progress to their desired level of specialization and then maintain a flat, or non-progressing, style of involvement on the specialization continuum. Behavior, skill and knowledge, and commitment variables were also used to measure recreation specialization. A three-level self-classification measure was used to predict group membership, and this classification was used to evaluate both groups of variables. The behavior, skill and knowledge, and commitment variables did a very good job of predicting level of specialization. The competition, sociability, and skill development variables did a good job of predicting the high and low levels of specialization, but did a very poor job of predicting the flatlining level of specialization. Motivations to participate were also studied. This study's failure to accurately predict the flatlining career trajectory highlights the need for further research on the phenomenon.

Individual specialization occurs when individuals selectively consume a subset of their population's diet. Intraspecific diet variation can stabilize population and community dynamics, promote species coexistence, and increase ecosystem productivity. Ecological variation also provides the variability necessary for natural or sexual selection to act. Individual threespine stickleback select different prey from a shared environment, and this variation is not simply a result of sex, size, or spatial heterogeneity. I use longitudinal observation of stickleback foraging microhabitat to support more commonly used cross-sectional metrics. Among recaptured individuals there were correlations between microhabitat use and functional morphology, and microhabitat use and long term dietary differences between individuals. I quantify individual specialization across populations using cross-sectional sampling to understand how and why ecological variation may itself be variable. All populations showed significant individual specialization. Specialization varied between populations and this variation seems to be a long-term property of populations. Overall morphological variance was positively correlated with ecological variation. Ecological variation, like all types of heritable variation, provides raw material for evolutionary change. For example, lacustrine populations of stickleback are commonly under disruptive selection due to intraspecific competition for prey resources. Speciation with gene flow may be driven by a combination of positive assortative mating and disruptive selection, particularly if selection and assortative mating act on the same trait. We present evidence that stickleback exhibit assortative mating by diet, using the isotopes of males and eggs within their nests. In concert with disruptive selection, this assortative mating should facilitate divergence. However, the population remains phenotypically unimodal, highlighting the fact that assortative mating and disruptive selection do not guarantee evolutionary divergence and speciation. There are several not-mutually-exclusive mechanisms by which assortative mating by diet may occur in these populations, such as shared microhabitat preference among individuals of similar diet. Stable isotopes reveal diet differences between different nesting areas and among individuals using different nest habitat within a nesting area. Spatial segregation of diet types may generate some assortative mating, but is insufficient to explain the observed assortment strength. We therefore conclude that sticklebacks' diet-assortative mating arises primarily from behavioral preference rather than from spatial isolation. / text

This dissertation research presents the elemental and technological analyses of basalt adze quarries from the Samoan Island of Tutuila. Both Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) were utilized in the chemical characterization of basalt samples and artifacts. Elemental concentration data derived from both INAA and EDXRF successfully differentiated between multiple Tutuilan basalt adze quarries, and these data were utilized to determine the most efficacious elemental analysis technique for Tutuilan basalt adze provenance study. Elemental concentration data from the Lau’agae quarry were utilized with technological attribute analysis of artifacts recovered from that archaeological site to investigate the potential for economic specialization in the manufacture of basalt adzes. Analysis of both the technological attribute data and the elemental concentration data provided evidence for potential specialization at the Lau’agae quarry. When these data were compared to similar data from other Polynesian archaeological sites it further supported the potential for specialized production at Lau’agae. Ultimately, it was determined that multiple skilled producers created various types of basalt adzes at Lau’agae with the intent to export and exchange their products.

In sports like gymnastics and figure skating where peak performance occurs before physical maturation it logically follows that athletes need to be dedicated to their athletic development at a young age if elite performance is to be attained. However, countless studies have reported that early specialization in a single sport exposes youth to elevated risks of negative physical, psychological or emotional outcomes associated with sport participation (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007). As such, it is important that we develop an understanding of the contextual factors or features of specialized youth sport environment(s) that are having positive impacts on youth growth, development and long-term commitment to sport. By harnessing an understanding of the features of specialized youth sport environments that positively contribute to the youth sport experience, we will be better equipped to mitigate the increased risk of negative outcomes in these environments. Using the National Research Council Institute of Medicine’s (2002) eight setting features as a framework, the general goal of the current study was to explore the specialized youth sport environment as it is experienced by young athletes. Photo-elicitation was used to conduct interviews with 15 female athletes between the ages of 8 and 13 who primarily participated in one sport for 12 or more hours per week, for at least 9 months of the year. Two over-arching dimensions of the specialized youth sport experience emerged from the themes generated by the interviews: program design and interaction. Program design represents six themes underpinning the program’s inherent structure and organization: personal performance emphasis, consistent training structure, adaptable practice activities, rule guided engagement, appropriate equipment set-up and maintenance, and supervision by one or more adults. The interaction dimension represents six themes that emerged as a result of relationships with key social agents (e.g., parents, coaches, peers, community) of the sport environment: tangible support, informational support, emotional support, cultivation of camaraderie, achievement recognition, and opportunities for autonomy. These findings add to the literature as they provide a first step in understanding the specialized youth sport environment from the athlete’s eyes. That is, they not only help us understand the elements of the youth sport environment that youth perceive as important, but they also provide us with a working framework of the key features that are likely to contribute to positive outcomes in specialized sport environments. / Thesis (Master, Kinesiology & Health Studies) -- Queen's University, 2011-10-11 21:50:33.779

This dissertation is an attempt to promote complementarity among churches in order to affect their activities in doing mission in the Vaal Triangle region. The study tends to uncover the potential of cooperation, unity and partnership in the Body of Christ in the area which may also be an example to the churches in other cities outside the Vaal Triangle. The purpose of this is to raise the consciousness of specialization of ministries in mission to achieve greater results through target evangelism. The literature review in the second chapter revealed the biblical and theological basis of the concept. In this context complementarity is explained as churches, Para church organizations, ministers and to a certain extent, government agencies, working together to complement one another with their distinctive resources, skills and abilities to tackle the crucial issues in their communities. The complementary approach that was implemented by the Apostles during the early church show case that we have different callings which when they are all put together, work in such a way that there can never be competition but partnership. Diversity of callings directs a diverse approach to a diverse society. The literature review also highlights that a complementary approach has been there even in the Old Testament and gives insight into other related concepts like stewardship and target evangelism. Due to the fact that there are diverse groups and that the Gospel must be preached to such, it becomes imperative to target such groups with 'specialists' that will meet the exact challenges among those groups. The growing understanding that Vaal Triangle with its political history is becoming a complex area with all diverse demographics, bring to light the possibility of churches working together as an organism in spite of their distinctiveness. These fast changing demographics oblige the churches to develop complementary strategies that will match the urban growth challenges in the area as well as the evolving societal problems. There are still some underlying challenges that the churches need to do in mission work to heal the traumatic effects resulting from the previous violent era. An empirical study done among few churches found out that the churches believe that a complementary approach is necessary. Although there has been a healthy cooperation and unity in the Vaal Triangle churches history, duplication and competition have also grown like weeds and has resulted in membership recycling (moving from church to church) and less fresh new conversions. As the city evolves, there are new dynamics that requires winsome partnerships, diversity, and ministry specialization as well as target evangelism. The conclusions that the research arrived at, gave rise to recommendations that are very practical to the context of the Vaal Triangle churches. / Thesis (M.A. (Biblical Studies/Theology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

This dissertation is an attempt to promote complementarity among churches in order to affect their activities in doing mission in the Vaal Triangle region. The study tends to uncover the potential of cooperation, unity and partnership in the Body of Christ in the area which may also be an example to the churches in other cities outside the Vaal Triangle. The purpose of this is to raise the consciousness of specialization of ministries in mission to achieve greater results through target evangelism. The literature review in the second chapter revealed the biblical and theological basis of the concept. In this context complementarity is explained as churches, Para church organizations, ministers and to a certain extent, government agencies, working together to complement one another with their distinctive resources, skills and abilities to tackle the crucial issues in their communities. The complementary approach that was implemented by the Apostles during the early church show case that we have different callings which when they are all put together, work in such a way that there can never be competition but partnership. Diversity of callings directs a diverse approach to a diverse society. The literature review also highlights that a complementary approach has been there even in the Old Testament and gives insight into other related concepts like stewardship and target evangelism. Due to the fact that there are diverse groups and that the Gospel must be preached to such, it becomes imperative to target such groups with 'specialists' that will meet the exact challenges among those groups. The growing understanding that Vaal Triangle with its political history is becoming a complex area with all diverse demographics, bring to light the possibility of churches working together as an organism in spite of their distinctiveness. These fast changing demographics oblige the churches to develop complementary strategies that will match the urban growth challenges in the area as well as the evolving societal problems. There are still some underlying challenges that the churches need to do in mission work to heal the traumatic effects resulting from the previous violent era. An empirical study done among few churches found out that the churches believe that a complementary approach is necessary. Although there has been a healthy cooperation and unity in the Vaal Triangle churches history, duplication and competition have also grown like weeds and has resulted in membership recycling (moving from church to church) and less fresh new conversions. As the city evolves, there are new dynamics that requires winsome partnerships, diversity, and ministry specialization as well as target evangelism. The conclusions that the research arrived at, gave rise to recommendations that are very practical to the context of the Vaal Triangle churches. / Thesis (M.A. (Biblical Studies/Theology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The aim of this study was to determine the effects of participation in a single sport small-sided games (SSG) programme compared to a multi-sport SSG programme on the physical fitness, gross motor coordination, soccer skills and application of tactics during soccer games of grade four children from a disadvantaged community. Two intact classes of boys and girls (n= 39 and n=40) participated in a six-week, 2x per week intervention programme. One class specialized in soccer and the other engaged in a diversified programme where they sampled hockey and team handball along with soccer. In terms of pedagogy, both classes followed a deliberate play model with its focus on intrinsic learning and non-intervention by a coach. Data were collected during pre-, post- and retention test periods. Both boys’ groups achieved significant improvements in their muscle endurance-push-ups, power and aerobic endurance on the retention test. Only the boys who participated in the multi-sport SSG programme achieved a significant improvement on their muscle endurance-sit-ups. The girls from both groups showed significant improvements in all physical fitness variables, with the exception of the girls in the muti-sport programme who did not achieve a significant improvement in their speed. Significant improvements were experienced by all groups for gross motor coordination and soccer skills. The boys in the soccer SSG programme demonstrated improvements in both offensive and defensive tactics while the boys in the multi-sport SSG programme improved in the application of their defensive tactics only. The girls who participated in the soccer SSG programme also improved in their defensive tactics while the girls who participated in the multi-sport SSG programme achieved improvements in their application of both offensive and defensive tactics. The results of this study support proponents of the Developmental Model of Sport Participation as presented in current sport pedagogy literature, who claim that the physical and tactical benefits pre-pubescent children derive from participation in a diversified games programme will be similar to those benefits derived from participation in a specialized sport-specific game programme, providing the sports involved are late specialization sports. These results support the conclusion that it is not necessary for pre-pubescent children to specialize in a late specialization sport such as soccer in order to progress in their ability to play soccer. They can make similar progress if they participate in a diversified games programme that provides them with a broader experience with sports that have similar physical and tactical requirements.

Abstract Early sport specialization is a phenomenon that continues to be practiced in today’s youth sports environment. The purpose of this study was to explore practices around early specialization within the minor hockey context in Eastern Ontario. More specifically, the goal of this thesis was to better understand parental perspectives on specialization versus diversification relative to their child’s experience in the sport of ice hockey. Additionally, this study aimed to uncover the rates of specialization in Minor Peewee AA ice hockey players in Eastern Ontario and the factors that influence those who specialize. A concurrent embedded mixed-methods procedure was employed for this study; a total of 114 survey responses and 15 semi-structured interviews formed the study sample. Findings in the study reveal a large majority of parents foster specialization in their child as 87% (n=114) of survey participants identified as having a child who specializes in the sport of ice hockey. However, interview data revealed that parents favor development through diversification. Individual influences such as parents and coaching staff were found to be contributing factors to the phenomenon of specialization. Further, the availability of resources within the hockey context was additionally found to influence specialization. Finally, Hockey Canada’s current position was cogitated with the results to reveal a strong inclination towards elite development. Results indicate a need for parent and coach education regarding their role in early specialization and their support for diversification of sport experiences. It is of particular importance during the transitioning years in particular where stakeholders (parents, coaches, administration) foster the sense of well-rounded development of a participating child not just for the preparation for the elite stages of sport but for overall wellness of the individual.

Trout anglers comprise about 20% of all anglers in Virginia and expended > 1-million angler-days in pursuit of Virginia trout. Stocked trout account for approximately 80% of the trout angling effort in Virginia (O'Neill 2001) through a program managed by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (VDGIF). Each year, the VDGIF stocks > 1-million catchable-sized trout in about 180 waters in Virginia. Despite the popularity of stocked trout fishing in Virginia, several factors potentially threaten the future of the stocked trout program in Virginia. First, previous surveys indicate that stocked trout anglers are less satisfied with their fishing experiences in Virginia than other species specialists. Additionally, the sale of stocked trout fishing licenses declined 31% between 2006 and 2013. Revenue generated from the sale of trout licenses is a significant source of income that helps fund the stocked trout program. Given the popularity of stocked trout fishing in Virginia and the considerable effort of VDGIF in managing the stocked trout program, my research objectives were to 1) identify homogenous angler groups seeking stocked trout in Virginia, 2) compare motivations, satisfaction, and preferences of stocked trout anglers in Virginia, and 3) examine the extent to which prior satisfaction and constraints relate to future participation. To address objectives 1 and 2, I administered a mail survey of 5,400 licensed trout anglers in Virginia. Using cluster analysis, I identified four distinct groups of stocked trout anglers: traditional anglers, generalists, occasional specialists, and specialists. Traditional anglers constituted the largest group, comprised of those who fished with bait, harvested the stocked trout they caught, fished more frequently than other groups, had low centrality, and invested less money in trout fishing than did other groups. Generalists included those who took fishing-related vacations, fished with a variety of terminal tackle, harvested their catch, and demonstrated low invest little in fishing for stocked trout. Occasional specialists fished infrequently, had low centrality, invested little money in fishing, fished with lures and flies, and released the stocked trout they caught. Specialists had high centrality and investment, fished with flies, and almost always released the stocked trout they caught. Psychological and natural-setting attributes were stronger motives to fish for stocked trout than were fishery and social motives. Anglers rated catching fish as being more important than keeping fish to eat. Overall, anglers were satisfied only somewhat with stocked trout fishing in Virginia. However, anglers rated satisfaction higher with activity-general characteristics, such as the setting and relaxing, than they did activity-specific factors, such as number or size of fish caught. Results of stated preference choice models indicated that anglers preferred unannounced stockings rather than stockings announced in advance. Furthermore, anglers preferred stocking of streams rather than lakes, stocking taking place during the spring, and catching six 10-inch trout rather than fewer, larger trout. Compared to weekday stockings, anglers did not show a preference for weekend stockings, despite comments made at public meetings suggesting that many anglers preferred weekend stockings. Although four specialization levels exist for Virginia's stocked trout anglers, choice models suggest that preferences coalesced into only two groups: preferences of specialists differed from those of traditional anglers, generalists, and occasional specialists. When compared to the status quo fishing trip, traditionalists, generalists, and occasional specialists preferred a prior announced stocking, whereas specialists preferred a delayed announcement and catching fewer, but larger, trout. To address the third objective, I surveyed 1,100 lapsed trout anglers (individuals who had purchased licenses twice between September 1, 2011, and August 31, 2013, but did not purchase one between September 1, 2013, and August 31, 2014). I found that anglers who placed high importance on non-catch-related factors (e.g., being outdoors, enjoying a relaxing experience, experiencing a natural setting) were more likely to fish for stocked trout again in the future. Constraints did not mediate the effect of prior satisfaction on future participation. However, structural constraints were related positively to future participation, suggesting that individuals who had more time and family commitments were more likely to negotiate those constraints and resume participation in the future. / Ph. D.

For many years, the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (VDGIF) has managed freshwater fisheries without fully understanding their stakeholders. To increase its knowledge and improve management, the VDGIF commissioned a market segmentation study to collect baseline information about its constituents and serve as a model for future studies. I developed a 16-page mail questionnaire that was sent to a stratified random sample of 5,378 Virginia resident freshwater fishing license holders. The questionnaire was use to collect information on characteristics, motivations, attitudes, and preferences of Virginia resident freshwater anglers. The response rate was 52%. I examined the descriptive characteristics of resident freshwater anglers and anglers who purchased different types of licenses and anglers from different management regions. Differences in fishing behaviors, motivations for fishing, attitudes, and preferences for management existed among anglers based on license type and regions. Although satisfaction with freshwater fishing was high, in most cases, many anglers believed that fishing quality had declined. By adopting a marketing approach and providing the desired experiences to each segment of anglers, the Fisheries Division may improve its relationship with anglers, as well as increase participation and satisfaction. I also segmented the Virginia anglers by species preference, specialization, and a multi-level approach that involved a combination of species preference and specialization. Anglers are not a homogenous group and they seek different experiences. Multi-level segmentation was the most useful method of segmentation because it identified within-species preference group differences. Within each species preference group I found several segments of anglers. Segments differed in their orientations (trophy or consumptive), preferred methods of fishing and information sources, and support for regulations. Specialist anglers from each species preference group were trophy oriented and some were consumptive oriented as well. Specialists also were the most supportive of restrictive regulations. Less specialized anglers in each species preference group generally were less trophy oriented, more consumptive, and less supportive of regulations than specialist anglers. My results provide better understanding of the different segments of anglers within each species preference group, which will allow managers to provide a more satisfying experience for their stakeholders. / Master of Science