Tato práce se zaměřuje na oblast effervescentních sprejů a jejich aplikace na kapalné spalování s důrazem na průmyslové spalovací komory. Oba aspekty – modelování a experiment – jsou řešeny. Práce obsahuje obecný úvod, ve kterém jsou vysvětleny základní jevy rozpadu kapaliny a vířivého spalování a dále je představena effervescentní atomizace. Poté jsou popsány použité experimentální postupy jak pro měření spreje, tak pro měření tepelných toků do stěn při spalování. V následující kapitole jsou popsány numerické modely a jejich podstata je vysvětlena. Jsou zde uvedeny modely pro rozpad spreje, turbulenci a spalování použité během výzkumu. Vlastní výsledky práce jsou uvedeny formou samostatných článků (vydaných nebo přijatých) s dodatečnou částí věnovanou nepublikovaným relevantním výsledkům. Bylo zjištěno, že standardní modely sprejů jsou do jisté míry schopny popsat effervescentní spreje. Nicméně aby bylo možné predikovat plamen kapalného spreje, jsou zapotřebí detailnější modely sprejů, které dokáží přesně zachytit změnu průměrů kapek v radiálním a axiálním směru. Experimentální měření effervescentních sprejů bylo provedeno pomocí navrhnuté metodiky. Výsledky měření byly analyzovány s důrazem na radiální a axiální vývoj průměrů kapek a některé nové jevy byly popsány. Nepřímá úměrnost mezi gas-liquid-ratio a středním průměrem kapek byla potvrzena. Dále by popsán jev, kdy pro různé axiální vzdálenosti které dojde k úplnému převrácení závislosti středního průměru na axiální vzdálenosti. V závěru je uvedeno shrnutí, které rekapituluje hlavní výsledků a závěry. V závěrečných poznámkách je nastíněn možný budoucí postup. Experimentální data pro ověřování budoucích effervescentních modelů jsou poskytnuta.

Numerical modeling of several turbulent nonreacting and reacting spray jets is carried out using a fully stochastic separated flow (FSSF) approach. As is widely used, the carrier-phase is considered in an Eulerian framework, while the dispersed phase is tracked in a Lagrangian framework following the stochastic separated flow (SSF) model. Various interactions between the two phases are taken into account by means of two-way coupling. Spray evaporation is described using a thermal model with an infinite conductivity in the liquid phase. The gas-phase turbulence terms are closed using the k-� model. In the classical SSF (CSSF) approach the effects of turbulent velocity fluctuations of the gas-phase are modeled stochastically to obtain instantaneous gas-phase velocity, which subsequently is used to estimate droplet dispersion and interphase transport rates. However, in the CSSF model, no such effort is made to model the effects of the fluctuations in the gas-phase reactive scalars, namely temperature and species mass fractions. Instead, the mean value of these scalars is used while solving for the droplet governing equations and estimating various interphase source terms. Also, in flamelet model and conditional moment closure (CMC) applications of turbulent sprays, the mixture fraction is defined using conventional definition, which is no longer a conserved quantity due to associated phase change. Therefore, in this thesis a novel mixture fraction based FSSF approach is used to stochastically model the fluctuating temperature and composition of the gas phase. These gas-phase reactive scalars are then used to refine the estimates of the heat and mass transfer rates between the droplets and the surrounding gas-phase. It is assumed that the fluctuations in the gas-phase reactive scalars are inherently associated with the fluctuation of a single conserved scalar, namely instantaneous mixture fraction. Instantaneous value of the gas-phase reactive scalars seen by individual droplets is then estimated from the instantaneous gas-phase mixture fraction, which is obtained as the Weiner process by randomly sampling a known beta-function probability density function (PDF) of the local mixture fraction field. Finally, Favre mean value of the gas-phase scalars are recovered as appropriate moments of the PDF. The present definition of the mixture fraction based on its instantaneous value facilitate exact calculation of the source terms in the transport equation for variance of the mixture fraction, whereas conventional definition leads to terms which require further modeling and simplifications. The present FSSF model also accounts for the possibility of existence of an envelope flame between the droplet and the bulk gas-phase, which greatly increases the heat and mass transfer rates to the droplet. The present model allows us to treat the occurrence of envelope flame separately which is otherwise neglected in the conventional spray combustion models. The FSSF model is implemented into a numerical code, and different well-defined nonreacting and reacting turbulent spray jets are investigated. For the reacting spray jets, single-step irreversible reaction with infinitely fast chemistry is assumed in the body of the flow. In such cases special care must be taken with modeling the upstream boundary condition. This is because the flow from the spray jet nozzle is unreacted and yet it becomes well reacted shortly downstream. Numerical results are compared against experimental measurements as well as with predictions using the CSSF approach. Numerical results from the FSSF and CSSF model are almost identical for the nonreacting spray jets, where the fluctuations in the gas-phase scalars are relatively low. For the reacting sprays, significant differences are found between the results of the FSSF and CSSF models for the reacting spray jets, where the fluctuations in the reactive scalars are high. The FSSF model reasonably predicts many features of the jet spray flames, such as flame length, gas-phase temperature, and spray droplet velocity/diameter distribution; results appear to be close to the experimental measurements. Finally, the combustion characteristics of the reacting spray jets are studied following classical group combustion theory. It shows that these spray jets have external group combustion mode near the nozzle-exit. Transition to internal group combustion takes place at different downstream locations based on the droplet loading and equivalence ratio at the nozzle-exit, whereas single droplet combustion regime is observed near the tip of the visible flame. Another alternate approach to study the combustion behavior of a cloud is proposed based on fraction of droplets having i) no envelope flame, ii) envelope flame, iii) extinguished envelope flame due to high slip velocity, iv) extinguished envelope flame due to droplet diameter being too small, v) both iii) and iv) above. Based on these, different group combustion behavior of the reacting spray jets are interpreted.

Les motoristes aéronautiques misent sur le développement de systèmes d’injection de carburant innovants pour réduire la consommation de carburant et les émissions de polluants. L’objectif de la thèse est de contribuer à l’étude expérimentale d’un injecteur « Lean Premixed » par le développement de diagnostics lasers couplant des approches basées sur la diffusion de Mie et l’émission fluorescente de traceurs. Les mesures ont été réalisées sur le banc de combustion haute pression HERON. Une approche novatrice avec l’imagerie de fluorescence du kérosène a permis d’obtenir une quantification du mélange kérosène/air. La structure de flamme a été mesurée simultanément par PLIF-OH et des mesures PIV de vitesse ont complété cette analyse. Un développement préliminaire de la PLIF-CO a également été mené. Les nombreuses mesures permettent de fournir une analyse détaillée des interactions flamme/spray/aérodynamique lors d’une combustion swirlée stabilisée kérosène/air à haute pression. / Aeronautical engine manufacturers are banking on the development of innovative fuel injection systems to reduce fuel consumption and pollutant emissions. The aim of the thesis is to contribute to the experimental investigation of a "Lean Premixed" injector by developing laser diagnostics coupling approaches based on Mie scattering and fluorescent emission of tracers. Measurements are performed at high pressure on the HERON combustion test bench. An innovative approach with fluorescence imaging of kerosene has resulted in the quantification of the kerosene/air mixture. The flame structure was analyzed simultaneously by OH-PLIF and velocity PIV measurements were performed to complete this analysis. A preliminary development of CO-PLIF was also conducted. The numerous measurements provided a detailed analysis of the mechanisms of flame/spray/aerodynamic interactions during a swirl-stabilized kerosene/air combustion at high pressure.

The present research is an experimental investigation of the atomization of a superheated pressurized liquid jet that is exposed to the ambient pressure due to a sudden depressurization. This phenomena is called flashing and occurs in several industrial environments.<p><p>Liquid flashing phenomena holds an interest in many areas of science and engineering. Typical examples one can mention: a) the accidental release of flammable and toxic pressure-liquefied gases in chemical and nuclear industry; the failure of a vessel or pipe in the form of a small hole results in the formation of a two-phase jet containing a mixture of liquid droplets and vapor, b) atomisation improvement in the fuel injector technology, c) flashing mechanism occurrence in expansion devices of refrigerator cycles etc. The interest in flashing events is especially true in the safety field where any unexpected event is undesirable. In case of an accident, flammable or toxic gas clouds are anticipated in close regions of the release because of the sudden phase change .Due to the non-equilibrium nature of the flow in these near field regions, conducting accurate data measurements for droplet size and velocity is a challenging task resulting in scarce data in the very close area.<p><p>This research has been carried out at the von Karman Institute (VKI) within the 5th framework of European Commission to fulfill the goal of understanding of source processes in flashing liquids in accidental releases. The program is carried out under name of FLIE (Flashing Liquids in Industrial Environments)(Contract no: EVG1-CT-2000-00025). The specific issues that are presented in this thesis study are the following:a) a comprehensive state of art of the jet break up patterns, spray characteristics and studies related to flashing phenomena; b)flashing jet breakup patterns and accurate characterization of the atomized jet such as droplet diameter size, velocity and temperature evolution through carefully designed laboratory-scale experiments; c) the influence of the initial storage conditions on the final atomized jet; d) a physical model on the droplet transformation and rapid evaporation in aerosol jets.<p><p>In order to characterize the atomization of the superheated liquid jet, laser-based optical techniques like Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), Phase Doppler Anemometry (PDA) are used to obtain information for particle diameter and velocity evolution at various axial and radial distances. Moreover, a high-speed video photography presents the possibility to understand the break-up pattern changes of the simulating liquid namely R-134A jet in function of driving pressure, superheat and discharge nozzle characteristics. Global temperature measurements with an intrusive technique such as thermocouples, non-intrusive measurements with Infrared Thermography are performed. Cases for different initial pressures, temperatures, orifice diameters and length-to-diameter ratios are studied. The break-up patterns, the evolution of the mean droplet size, velocity, RMS, turbulence<p>intensity and temperature along the radial and axial directions are presented in function of initial parameters. Highly populated drop size and velocity count distributions are provided. Among the initial storage conditions, superheat effect is found to be very important in providing small droplets. A 1-D analytical rapid evaporation model is developed in order to explain the strong temperature decrease during the measurements. A sensitivity analysis of this model is provided.<p> / Doctorat en sciences appliquées / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

[ES] La creciente aversión pública contra los motores de combustión interna ha llevado a un fuerte deseo de cambio hacia fuentes de energía renovables y más limpias. Sin embargo, todavía es difícil reemplazar los combustibles líquidos derivados del petróleo como fuente primaria de energía, principalmente debido a su gran disponibilidad, confiabilidad, y asequibilidad. Por lo tanto, la comunidad científica debe mantener los esfuerzos para aumentar la eficiencia de estos motores en beneficio de la sociedad. Con respecto a los motores diésel, una técnica implementada ha sido aumentar el número de orificios de salida del inyector y reducir sus diámetros, mejorando el proceso de mezcla aire/combustible. Sin embargo, a medida que aumenta el número de orificios en la boquilla, también aumenta la proximidad entre ellos, lo que lleva a una reducción en el espacio disponible para que cada chorro se desarrolle sin interactuar con los chorros adyacentes. Esta interacción podría afectar el evento de combustión y sus implicaciones no se han definido por completo. De esta manera, la presente tesis tuvo como objetivo analizar la influencia del espaciamiento entre chorros en el desarrollo de la inyección, y mejorar la metodología empleada en el instituto para estudiar el chorro en inyectores multi-orificios, teniendo en cuenta las interacciones entre chorros. Con este objetivo, Continental fabricó dos inyectores diésel idénticos excepto por la distribución geométrica de los orificios de salida de cada boquilla, ya que se destinaron específicamente a estudiar la influencia del espaciamiento entre chorros en el evento de inyección. Concretamente, el primer inyector permitió estudiar, durante el mismo evento de inyección, el desarrollo de un chorro aislado en un lado de la boquilla y, en la cara opuesta, cinco chorros con un espaciamiento entre ellos de 30°. Por otro lado, el segundo inyector tiene dos distribuciones de orificios adicionales, por lo que un total de tres configuraciones de espaciado entre chorros (30° - 36° - 45°) fueron comparadas con el rendimiento del chorro aislado (espaciado = 120°). Además, se probaron con éxito una nueva ventana óptica y un espejo de cerámica de alta temperatura. Con respecto al retraso de la ignición, los chorros con chorros vecinos tendieron a tener valores de retraso de la ignición iguales o ligeramente inferiores a los del chorro aislado en condiciones pobres de contorno (baja presión del raíl, temperatura, o densidad de la cámara). Por otro lado, el efecto contrario se observó al aumentar los valores de las condiciones de contorno, con valores de retraso de la ignición iguales o más altos para los chorros con chorros vecinos. No obstante, no se observó una tendencia clara, con interacciones complejas y múltiples factores afectando simultáneamente el evento de ignición. Sobre la longitud de levantamiento de llama, los resultados mostraron que al alcanzar cierta proximidad entre los chorros, la interacción entre ellos se convierte en un factor predominante en su comportamiento, y dicha longitud se reduce considerablemente. Por otro lado, a medida que aumentaba el espaciado entre chorros, la longitud se aproximaba gradualmente a la obtenida con el chorro aislado. En cuanto a la formación de hollín, los chorros con menor espaciado con sus chorros vecinos (30° y 36°) generalmente tuvieron mayor espesor óptico KL y valores máximos de masa de hollín para una condición de contorno dada, en comparación con el desarrollo del chorro aislado. Estas tendencias están en línea con los resultados de la longitud de levantamiento de llama observados, en los que los chorros estrechamente espaciados tuevieron una longitud más corta debido (posiblemente) al englobamiento de gases calientes. Esta reducción deterioraría el proceso de mezcla de aire/combustible y, en consecuencia, la combustión ocurriría en condiciones de mezcla más ricas que son propicias para la formación de hollín. / [CA] La creixent aversió pública contra els motors de combustió interna ha portat a un fort desig de canvi cap a fonts d'energia renovables i més netes. Tot i aixó, encara és difícil substituir els combustibles líquids derivats del petroli com a font primària d'energia, principalment per la seva gran disponibilitat, seguretat, i assequibilitat. Per tant, la comunitat científica ha de mantenir la investigació per tal d'augmentar l'eficiència d'aquests motors en benefici de la societat. Pel que fa als motors dièsel, una tècnica implementada ha estat augmentar el nombre d'orificis de sortida de l'injector i reduir els seus diàmetres, millorant el procés de barreja aire/combustible. No obstant això, a mesura que augmenta el nombre d'orificis a la tovera, també augmenta la proximitat entre ells, fet que porta a una reducció a l'espai disponible perquè cada raig es desenvolupi sense interactuar amb els dolls adjacents. Aquesta interacció podria afectar l'esdeveniment de la combustió i les seves implicacions no s'han definit del tot. D'aquesta manera, aquesta tesi va tenir com a objectiu analitzar la influència de l'espaiament entre dolls en el desenvolupament de la injecció, i millorar la metodologia emprada a l'institut per a estudiar els esdeveniments d'injecció d'injectors de múltiples orificis, tenint en compte les interaccions entre dolls. Amb aquest objectiu, Continental va fabricar dos injectors dièsel amb idèntic disseny intern excepte per la distribució geomètrica dels orificis de sortida de cada tovera, ja que es van destinar específicament a estudiar la influència de l'espaiament entre dolls a l'esdeveniment d'injecció. Concretament, el primer injector va permetre estudiar, durant el mateix esdeveniment d'injecció, el desenvolupament d'un raig solitari en un costat del tovera i, a la cara oposada, cinc raigs amb un espai entre ells de 30°. D'altra banda, el segon injector té dues distribucions d'orificis addicionals, aconseguint que un total de tres configuracions d'espaiat entre dolls (30°-36°-45°) es compararen amb el rendiment del raig solitari (espaiat = 120°). A més, es van provar amb èxit una nova finestra òptica i un mirall de ceràmica d'alta temperatura. Pel que fa al retard de la ignició, els dolls amb dolls adjacents van tendir a tenir valors de retard de la ignició iguals o lleugerament inferiors als del raig solitari en condicions pobres de contorn (baixa pressió del rail, temperatura, o densitat de la càmera). D'altra banda, l'efecte contrari es va observar augmentant els valors de les condicions de contorn, amb valors de retard de la ignició iguals o més alts per als dolls amb dolls adjacents. Tot i això, no es va apreciar un efecte constant, amb interaccions complexes i múltiples factors afectant simultàniament l'esdeveniment d'ignició. Sobre la longitud d'aixecament de flama, els resultats van mostrar que en assolir certa proximitat entre els dolls, la interacció entre ells es converteix en un factor predominant en el seu comportament, reduint-se considerablement aquesta longitud. D'altra banda, a mesura que augmentava l'espaiat entre dolls, la longitud s'aproximava gradualment a l'obtinguda amb el raig solitari. Quant a la formació de sutge, els raigs amb menor espaiat amb els seus raigs adjacents (30° i 36°) generalment van tenir més gruix òptic KL i valors màxims de massa de sutge per a una condició de contorn donada, en comparació amb el desenvolupament del raig solitari. Aquestes tendències estan aliniades amb els resultats de la longitud d'aixecament de flama observats, en què els dolls estretament espaiats van tenir una longitud més curta degut (possiblement) a l'englobament de gasos calents. Aquesta reducció deterioraria el procés de barreja d'aire/combustible i, en per tant, la combustió ocorreria en condicions de mescla més riques que són propícies per a la formació de sutge. / [EN] The growing public aversion to internal combustion engines has led to a strong desire to shift towards renewable and cleaner energy sources. However, it is still hard to replace petroleum-derived liquid fuels as the primary energy source, mainly due to their plenty of availability, reliability, and affordability. Then, efforts have to come from the research community to increase the efficiency of these engines for the benefit of society. Regarding diesel engines, one implemented technique has been to increase the number of outlet holes of the injector and reduce their diameters, enhancing the air/fuel mixing process. Nevertheless, as the number of holes in the nozzle increases, so does the proximity between them, leading to a reduction in the space available for each jet to develop without interacting with the neighbor sprays. This interaction could affect the combustion event, and its implications have not been entirely defined. Thus, the present thesis aimed to analyze the influence of inter-jet spacing on the injection development and enhance the methodology employed in the institute to study injection events of multi-holes injectors, accounting for the interactions between jets. To this end, two diesel injectors with six outlet orifices were manufactured by Continental with identical design, except for the geometric distribution of the outlet holes of each nozzle, as they were specifically allocated to study the influence of inter-jet spacing on the injection event. Concretely, the first injector allowed the study of the development of an isolated spray on one side and a spray with an inter-jet spacing of 30° on the other side during the same injection event. Moreover, the second injector has two additional orifices distributions, so a total of three inter-jet spacing configurations (30°- 36° - 45°) were compared to the performance of the isolated spray (spacing = 120°). Additionally, a novel optical window and high-temperature ceramic mirror were successfully tested. Regarding the ignition delay, sprays with neighbor jets tended to have equal or slightly smaller ignition delay values under poor mixing and ignition conditions (low rail pressure, chamber temperature, or chamber density conditions). On the other hand, the opposite effect was generally observed as the boundary conditions were overall increased, with equal or higher ignition delay values within sprays with neighbor jets, compared to that of the isolated spray. Nonetheless, no clear trend was defined, with complex interactions and multiple factors simultaneously affecting the ignition event. On the lift-off length, the results showed that after certain proximity between sprays is reached, the interaction between the jets becomes a predominant factor in their behavior, and the lift-off length is considerably reduced. Moreover, as the inter-jet spacing increases, the performance gradually approaches that obtained from the isolated spray. Respecting the soot formation, the sprays with closely spaced neighbor jets (30° and 36°) generally had higher optical thickness KL and peak soot mass values for a given boundary condition when compared to the development of the isolated spray. These trends are in line with the lift-off length results observed, in which the closely spaced jets had a shorter lift-off length due to (plausibly) hot gases re-entrainment. This shortening would deteriorate the air/fuel mixing process and, consequently, combustion happens in richer mixture conditions that are suitable for soot formation. / I want to express my gratitude to Generalitat Valenciana and European Social Fund for the financial support provided through the research grant (ACIF/2018/122) / Montiel Prieto, TE. (2022). Influence of Inter-Jet Spacing on the Diesel Spray Formation and Combustion [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/181608 / TESIS