Far from the frontlines, the destiny of armies and generals has been considerably influenced by anonymous public servants working long hours behind a desk. On many occasions, these bureaucrats were the actual organizers of victory or the root cause of defeat. Count Pierre-Antoine Bruno Daru (1767-1829), Intendant Général de la Grande Armée, was one such man. The research concerns the critical nature of logistics and military administration in the performance of modern armies. It challenges the conventional view that the military commissariat was primarily responsible for the defeats of the armies of the First French Republic during the Revolutionary Wars. A professional bureaucracy was the response deployed by the French government to cope with the need to enlist, train, arm, equip, feed, shelter, pay, and control ever larger military forces. The solutions designed and applied by Pierre Daru and his colleagues, tested and improved by trial and error, became the foundation of modern military administration and, eventually, a model that was extended to contemporary, multinational corporations. Most accounts of the exploits of the late eighteenth-century French armies are devoted to describing their élan, maneuverability, and operational innovations. Yet, the fundamental distinction between the Revolutionary forces and their predecessors was scale. The gradual emergence of a professional bureaucracy was instrumental in making such an expansion possible.

The aim of this thesis is to examine whether Venezuela's democratic decline could be explained by the consolidation theory of Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan. Between the years 2005 – 2017, the organization Freedom House concluded that Venezuela’s political and civil rights declined, resulted in that Freedom House classified Venezuela from “partly free” in 2005 to “not free” in 2017, and several scientists classified Venezuela year 2017 as an autocracy. The method is to apply the consolidation theory and its five arenas (the civil society, the political society, rule of law, state bureaucracy and economic society) in the case Venezuela between the years 2005 – 2017. Each arena contains different qualifications which are all needed for a state to transition from democracy to consolidated democracy. However, in this thesis the aim is to study if the consolidation theory is able to explain a state’s transition from democracy to autocracy. By using material as scientific articles and reports, it is concluded that each arenas’ qualifications have deteriorated between the years 2005 - 2017. Therefore, it is found that the consolidation theory works very well in explaining a state’s transition from democracy to autocracy, which in this case is Venezuela.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2017-03-17T18:12:25Z No. of bitstreams: 1 raissacristinaarantes.pdf: 1009013 bytes, checksum: 2133a53d54ae2552866943d41ae35ee7 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2017-03-18T12:16:32Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 raissacristinaarantes.pdf: 1009013 bytes, checksum: 2133a53d54ae2552866943d41ae35ee7 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-03-18T12:16:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 raissacristinaarantes.pdf: 1009013 bytes, checksum: 2133a53d54ae2552866943d41ae35ee7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-10-31 / O estudo, que neste espaço se propõe ao Programa de Pós Graduação em Serviço Social da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, se refere a um estudo de três obras de Nicos Poulantzas, para extrair do autor suas análises acerca da Burocracia de Estado e da luta de classes, para então apreender quais são as contribuições e os limites das pesquisas do autor para um estudo dos movimentos sociais. As obras do autor analisadas são O Poder Político e as Classes Sociais, As Classes Sociais no Capitalismo Hoje e O Estado, O Poder, O Socialismo. Ao analisar a luta de classes, e o papel da burocracia do Estado diante das demandas das classes antagônicas frente ao desenvolvimento do capitalismo, as obras estudadas dão subsídio para uma análise atual dos novos rumos tomados pelas formas de organização da classe trabalhadora, propiciando um denso e necessário estudo sobre os movimentos sociais e a relação da classe trabalhadora com o Estado Capitalista. / The study, that takes place in the Social Service Postgraduate Program of the Federal University of Juiz de Fora refers to an analysis of three works of Nicos Poulantzas, to extract from the author his analysis about the bureaucracy of the State and the class struggle, so that it could make possible to catch what are the contributions and limits of the author's research for a study of social movements. The author's works that were under analysis are: The Political Power and Social Classes, the Social Classes in the Capitalism of Today and The State, The Power, The Socialism. By analyzing the class struggle in face to the demands of antagonistic classes against the development of the capitalism, the works studied provide aids to a current analysis of the new direction taken by the forms of organization of the working class, providing a dense and necessary study on social movements and the relationship between the working class and the capitalist State.

在經歷了長時間俄國的官僚體制演進歷程，俄國由原先俄帝國「官階表」(Table of Ranks)，到蘇聯時期產生了所謂的「職官名錄制」的體制，這龐大的官僚傳統，經過逐漸演化，衍生出了貪污、效率緩慢、特權制、為特定國家組織服務的「恩庇侍從」的脈絡。一九九一年解體後，葉爾欽繼承了蘇聯這龐大的官僚，而且其規模還逐年增加，但效率卻沒有明顯的上升，反而在國家公務人員體系內部產生了嚴重的性別、教育、以及工作年資上退化的情形；葉爾欽看到了，設立了「國家公務人員部」(Roskadry) 、「俄羅斯國家公務人員學院」(Russian Academy of State Service, RAGS)等一連串的機關，並通過「俄羅斯聯邦公務人員原則法」(Fundamentals of State Service)等，想要解決這種情形；但這段時間的地方、中央衝突，解體初期俄羅斯未完善的法律、官僚貪腐集團的阻礙，加上葉爾欽健康上、政權上的不穩定，使得他的改革沒有多大的成效。 兩千年總統大選後，俄羅斯的公務人員改革再度透過四份文件展開：「俄羅斯聯邦國家公務人員制度改革構想」(The Conception of the State Service System Reform of the Russian Federation)、「俄羅斯聯邦國家公務人員體制」(About the System of State Service of the Russian Federation)、「俄羅斯聯邦公務人員體制」(About the Civil Service of the Russian Federation)、「俄羅斯聯邦國家公務人員改革計畫」(State Service Reform in the Russian Federation)：二零零三~二零零五年的改革計畫。 以上四份文件，加上普欽上任後，逐漸中央集權，收回其權力，並打擊寡頭，使得俄羅斯的公務人員的人才教育、與培訓制度地逐漸上了軌道，並確立了公民公平進入公職體系、軍事和法律執行領域的職員加入公務體系的三種類劃分方法、層級劃分，加上競爭性的升遷、和職業性任用的「功績制」到此逐漸地成熟，根除腐敗公務人員的決心，可以看出俄國的確做了很大幅度的進步。然而，俄羅斯的公務人員在薪水、社會地位仍嫌低下，使得俄國的公職體系沒有開放改革後的私有部門、私人企業等的吸引力，而其公務人員在職業資格上，仍是需要改進的地方，作者認為俄羅斯的官僚政治改革，並不會在短時間之內成功，除非改革能由俄羅斯大眾的基本社會意識型態轉變下手，由基礎的意識形態、社會觀感下手，加上改善上述官僚利益的阻礙、公務人員的薪水、職業任用程度等問題，俄羅斯的公務人員才能享受更高的社會地位，更符合韋伯的官僚效率，使得俄羅斯國家機器運轉地更順，更有效率。

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