In diverse eukaryotic organisms, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) induces robust silencing of cellular RNA cognate to either strand of the input dsRNA; a phenomenon now known as RNA interference (RNAi). Within the RNAi pathway, small, 21 nucleotide (nt) duplexed RNA, dubbed small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), derived from the longer input dsRNA, guide the RNA induced silencing complex (RISC) to destroy its target RNA. Due to its ability to silence virtually any gene, whether endogenous or exogenous, in a variety of model organisms and systems, RNAi has become a valuable laboratory tool, and is even being heralded as a potential therapy for an array of human diseases. In order to understand this complex and unique pathway, we have undertaken the biochemical characterization of RNAi in the model insect, Drosophila melanogaster. To begin, we investigated the role of ATP in the RNAi pathway. Our data reveal several ATP-dependent steps and suggest that the RNAi reaction comprises as least five sequential stages: ATP-dependent processing of double-stranded RNA into siRNAs, ATP-independent incorporation of siRNAs into an inactive ~360 kDa protein/RNA complex, ATP-dependent unwinding of the siRNA duplex to generate an active complex, ATP-dependent activation of RISC following siRNA unwinding, and ATP-independent recognition and cleavage of the RNA target. In addition, ATP is used to maintain 5´ phosphates on siRNAs, and only siRNAs with these characteristic 5´ phosphates gain entry into the RNAi pathway. Next, we determined that RISC programmed exogenously with an siRNA, like that programmed endogenously with microRNAs (miRNAs), is an enzyme. However, while RISC behaves like a classical Michaelis-Menten enzyme in the presence of ATP, without ATP, multiple rounds of catalysis are limited by release of RISC-produced cleavage products. Kinetic analysis of RISC suggests that different regions of the siRNA play distinct roles in the cycle of target recognition, cleavage and product release. Bases near the siRNA 5´ end disproportionately contribute to target RNA-binding energy, whereas base pairs formed by the central and 3´ region of the siRNA provide helical geometry required for catalysis. Lastly, the position of the scissile phosphate is determined during RISC assembly, before the siRNA encounters its RNA target. In the course of performing the kinetic assessment of RISC, we observed that when siRNAs are designed with regard to 'functional asymmetry' (by unpairing the 5´ terminal nucleotide of the siRNA's guide strand, i.e. the strand anti-sense to the target RNA), not all of the RISC formed was active for target cleavage. We observed, somewhat paradoxically, that increased siRNA unwinding and subsequent accumulation of single-stranded RNA into RISC led to reduced levels of active RISC formation. This inactive RISC did not act as a competitor for the active fraction. In order to characterize this non-cleaving complex, we performed a series of protein-siRNA photo-crosslinking assays. From these assays we found that thermodynamic stability and termini structure plays a role in determining which proteins an siRNA will associate with, and how association occurs. Furthermore, we have found, by means of the photo-crosslinking assays, that siRNAs commingle with components of the miRNA pathway, particularly Ago1, suggesting overlapping functions or crosstalk for factors thought to be involved in separate, distinct pathways.

Four type II toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems were previously identified in Burkholderia pseudomallei K96243. Type II TA toxins are able to induce cell growth arrest or death by interfering with key processes within the organism. BPSS0390-0391 is one of the TA systems previously identified and has homology to hicBA system in Acinetobacter baumannii. B. pseudomallei HicA is able to cause a reduction in the number of culturable cells after expression in E. coli. This study aimed to characterise B. pseudomallei HicA in three ways: by inducing expression of HicA in bacterial species other than E. coli, by identifying amino acids in HicA involved in toxicity and neutralisation by the antitoxin HicB and by examining the interaction of HicA with other TA antitoxins identified within B. pseudomallei genome. A broad host range plasmid encoding BPSS0390 was transformed into a range of Gram negative bacteria including Yersinia pseudotuberculosis IP32953, Vibrio vulnificus E64MW, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium SL1344 and Burkholderia thailandensis E264. Expression of BPSS0390 was toxic in all bacterial species tested, despite the presence of antitoxin BPSS0391 homologues in some species. Unregulated expression in E. coli resulted in the appearance of escape mutants encoding non-toxic variants of HicA. An alanine scanning mutagenesis study of HicA identified 20 mutants where toxicity was abolished despite high levels of expression, but identified no mutants that affected TA complex formation. Finally an existing co-expression assay was modified to examine interactions between HicA and other type II TA antitoxins in B. pseudomallei. The assay revealed no interaction between HicA and non-cognate antitoxins and clarified the role of IPTG as an inhibitor of PBAD promoter on the arabinose operon.

La reconnaissance spécifique du génome viral et son encapsidation est une étape cruciale pour l’assemblage de particules virales. Chez SPP1, comme chez d’autres bactériophages à queue, le moteur moléculaire qui encapside le génome viral est composé de la terminase, une enzyme hétéro-oligomérique qui possède une activité ATPasique et nucléasique, et de la protéine portale, un oligomère cyclique par lequel l’ADN viral est transloqué. Dans un grand nombre de ses virus, l’encapsidation de l’ADN est initiée par la reconnaissance et le clivage d’une séquence spécifique nommée « pac ». C’est un évènement qui se produit une seule fois au début d’une série de cycles d’encapsidation processive à partir d’un concatémère issu de la réplication du génome du phage. La région pac de SPP1 contient deux séquences (pacL et pacR) où TerS (gp1) se lie entourant la région (pacC) où TerL (gp2) coupe l’ADN de SPP1.Ici, nous montrons qu’une région de la séquence pacL et qu’un motif polyadénine de pacR agissent ensemble pour promouvoir le clivage en pacC. La dégénération de la région pacC n’a pas montré d’effet sur que le clivage endonucléolytique qui a lieu à une position bien définie de pacC avec une précision de ~6 pb. Des études avec des phages proches de SPP1 ont montré une conservation dans la position du clivage, malgré des variations dans pacC, pacR ou dans la distance entre pacL et pacC. Les données sont compatibles avec un modèle dans lequel TerS interagit spécifiquement avec la région pacL, sur laquelle le multimère cyclique TerS doit s’enrouler, et le motif polyadénine de la région pacR. Le complexe nucléoprotéique résultant va créer un contexte structural qui permet de recruter et positionner le domaine nucléase de TerL pour une coupure très précise sur pacC sans spécificité de séquence. / The specific recognition of the viral genome and its packaging is a critical step in viral particle assembly. In SPP1, as in many tailed bacteriophages, the macromolecular motor that encapsidates viral DNA is composed of terminase, a hetero-oligomeric enzyme possessing ATPase and nuclease activities, and of portal protein, a cyclic oligomer through which DNA is translocated. In a large number of these viruses, DNA packaging is initiated by recognition and cleavage of a specific sequence pac. This event occurs once at the beginning of a series of processive encapsidation events along a substrate concatemer of replicated phage genomes. The SPP1 pac region has two sequences where TerS (gp1) binds (pacL and pacR) flanking the segment where TerL (gp2) cleaves the SPP1 DNA (pacC). Here we show that a sequence segment of pacL and a poly-adenine motif in pacR act together to promote cleavage at pacC. Extensive degeneration of pacC sequence has no detectable effect in pac cleavage. The endonucleolytic cut occurs at a defined position with a precision of ~6 bp. Studies with SPP1-related phages show conservation of the cut position, irrespectively of sequence variation in pacC, in pacR or changes in pacL-pacC distance. The data is compatible with a model in which TerS interacts specifically with a region of pacL that probably wraps around the TerS cyclical multimer, and a poly-A tract in pacR. The resulting nucleoprotein complex architecture positions TerL for accurate cleavage at pacC without specific sequence requirement.

In order to preserve its genomic integrity, an organism needs to detect and repair DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in a prompt and accurate fashion. This goal is accomplished by enabling an exquisitely sensitive DSB sensing apparatus as well as multiple and often overlapping pathways for repair. All of these processes are carried out on a highly organized and compacted chromatin substrate in the nucleus. An important question is whether chromatin plays an active role in the process and whether it helps in the signaling or repair of this damage. We have used Chromosome Conformation Capture (3C) to show that there are no large scale changes in chromosome structure at a single site-specific DNA double-strand break, although looping interactions between DSBs and donors can be detected. In a surprising result, we found that 3C detected a nucleus-wide decrease in interactions with the DSB. We have used a combination of 3C, fluorescence microscopy and chromatin immunoprecipitation to show that the decrease in interactions is a result of the relocalization of persistent DSB to the nuclear periphery. We also show that this is dependent on the recruitment of telomerase complex to the DSB, which then interacts with its natural partner in the Inner nuclear membrane, Mps3, and relocalizes the DSB to the periphery. Thus, a DSB that cannot be repaired is shunted into a pathway where the cell attempts to survive by putting a de novotelomere on the broken chromosome. Remarkably, this is not an irreversible phenomenon despite the recruitment of telomerase and the relocalization to the periphery. DSBs which are repaired slowly due to the presence of homology on a different chromosome, or merely usage of a kinetically slower form of repair, undergo this pathway switch, but can still recover and repair the DSB if homology is present. We also show that the role of the periphery is to ensure repair through de novotelomere formation or other non-canonical repair pathways. Indeed, loss of peripheral localization results in a dramatic suppression of the genomic instability of the Slx5/8 mutants, which have been implicated in the persistent DSB response at the Nuclear pores. Thus, the nuclear periphery is a special compartment where DSBs go after they cannot be repaired by canonical pathways. Specialized components such as telomerase, silencing proteins and components of the SUMO pathway, all seem to play roles in the healing of these chromosomes. Importantly, the SUN domain homologues of Mps3 have been shown to play roles similar to their yeast homologues in meiotic bouquet formation through their interactions with telomeres. Thus, they may represent a conserved mechanism for chromosome healing and telomere anchoring, despite the fact that mammalian telomeres are rarely found at the nuclear periphery. Such survival mechanisms may be expected to operate in cancer cells which may or may not have upregulated telomerase expression.

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No description available.

Today, a large proportion of the world's plenteous offshore natural gas resource are stranded, flared or re-injected due to constraints pertaining to its utilisation. The major constraint in the utilisation of this resource is linked to its properties, which makes it difficult to transport or store. Although the resource presents an excellent opportunity for the Gas-to-Liquid (GTL) technology (process for converting natural gas into high energy liquid fuels with qualities that surpass the most stringent current and future clean-fuel requirements), the further processing of this resource is still impeded by high cost of transportation. However, it is believed that the emerging Floating GTL concept could offer superb opportunities to bring such offshore stranded natural gas reserves to markets by converting the gas into high quality liquid fuels, at the production sites, before it is transported using conventional oil tankers or vessels. But the question is: can this venture be profitable or economically viable? In response, an Economic Model (the EV Model) to review the economic viability of the Floating GTL option was developed. Analyses on technical and economical aspects of the floating GTL application offshore are presented with case studies on Syntroleum's and Statoil's floating GTL designs. Profitability analyses were conducted using the EV model to evaluate economic parameters such as Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), Discounted PayBack Period (DPBP), Profitability index (PI), Break-Even Analysis (BEA) and Scale Economies for some assumed case scenarios involving both designs. In addition, sensitivity analyses were also carried out to find the most sensitive parameters which affect the viability of the floating GTL option. The economic analyses revealed that, a modest feedstock cost (~0 - $3/MSCF), high crude oil price (that stays above $30 per barrel) and reduction trend in capital expenditure (for stand alone Floating GTL plant) up to $20,00O/BPD or lower in the next few years, will open windows for the floating GTL concept. Finally, the energy policy needed to achieve the capitalisation of the plenteous offshore stranded gas resource via floating GTL is also discussed. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Development and Management))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Résumé : Chez toutes les cellules, une modulation précise de l’expression des gènes est essentielle afin de réguler adéquatement leur métabolisme et de s’adapter aux changements environnementaux. En effet, c’est l’expression des gènes, plutôt que la séquence d’ADN, qui détermine en grande partie la diversité et la complexité des organismes. Celle-ci dépend principalement des changements dans les niveaux d’ARNs cellulaires résultant de la modification de l’équilibre entre leurs taux relatifs de synthèse et de dégradation. Alors que la régulation transcriptionnelle a été largement étudiée par le passé, des études récentes révèlent que la stabilité de l’ARN joue aussi un rôle important dans le modelage du transcriptome. Toutefois, les mécanismes qui assurent la dégradation précise et sélective des ARNs sont globalement mal compris. Au cours de cette thèse, j’ai utilisé la ribonucléase III de levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Rnt1p) comme modèle pour étudier comment des transcrits spécifiques sont ciblés pour la dégradation et évaluer sa contribution à la régulation de l’expression génique. Les résultats indiquent que Rnt1p régule l’expression des gènes en utilisant une spécificité élargie pour des structures tige-boucles d’ARN. En effet, un nouveau motif structurel de Rnt1p permet la discrimination des tige-boucles ayant une séquence spécifique tout en bloquant la liaison à des hélices génériques d’ARN double-brin. D’un autre côté, l’identification des signaux de dégradation de Rnt1p à l’échelle du transcriptome a permis de révéler plus de 384 transcrits clivés par Rnt1p, dont la majorité sont des ARN messagers. En outre, l’impact de la délétion de RNT1 sur l’expression de ces gènes est influencé par les conditions de culture des cellules, ce qui suggère que Rnt1p est un important régulateur conditionnel de l’expression génique. Somme toute, les résultats présentés dans cette thèse démontrent comment des ARNs sont spécifiquement choisis pour la dégradation et soulignent l’importance de la dégradation nucléaire dans la régulation de l’expression génique en réponse à des changements environnementaux. // Abstract : Precise modulation of gene expression is essential for any cell in order to regulate its metabolism and adapt to environmental changes. In fact, it is gene expression, rather than DNA sequence alone, which mostly explains the functional diversity and complexity between the different cell types. As such, gene expression mainly results from changes in the levels of cellular RNAs which are, in turn, dependent on the equilibrium between their relative rates of synthesis and degradation. While transcriptional control has been largely studied in the past, recent publications reveal that changes in RNA stability also play an important role in shaping the transcriptome. Unfortunately though, the mechanisms ensuring precise and selective RNA degradation remains poorly understood. In this thesis, I have used the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae ribonuclease III (Rnt1p) as a model to study how specific transcripts are targeted for degradation and evaluate its contribution to the regulation of gene expression. The results indicate that Rnt1p regulates gene expression using a broad specificity for structured RNA stem loops. Indeed, a new structural motif of Rnt1p permits discrimination of hairpins with specific sequence while blocking the binding of the generic RNA duplexes recognized by other members of the RNase III family. This highly specific mode of substrate recognition was found to be easily modulated by a flexible network of protein RNA interactions. On the other hand, transcriptome-wide identification of Rnt1p degradation signals uncovered more than 384 transcripts, including 291 mRNAs. Interestingly, the impact of RNT1 deletion on mRNA expression is modulated by changes in the growth conditions of the cell, indicating that Rnt1p is an important regulator of conditional gene expression. Overall, the results presented in this thesis demonstrate how specific RNAs are selected for degradation and highlight the importance of nuclear RNA decay for fine tuning gene expression in response to changes in growth conditions.

The mammalian protein POT1 binds to telomeric single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), protecting chromosome ends from being detected as sites of DNA damage. POT1 is composed of an N-terminal ssDNA-binding domain and a C-terminal protein interaction domain. With regard to the latter, POT1 heterodimerizes with the protein TPP1 to foster binding to telomeric ssDNA in vitro and binds the telomeric double-stranded-DNA-binding protein TRF2. We sought to determine which of these functions-ssDNA, TPP1, or TRF2 binding-was required to protect chromosome ends from being detected as DNA damage. Using separation-of-function POT1 mutants deficient in one of these three activities, we found that binding to TRF2 is dispensable for protecting telomeres but fosters robust loading of POT1 onto telomeric chromatin. Furthermore, we found that the telomeric ssDNA-binding activity and binding to TPP1 are required in cis for POT1 to protect telomeres. Mechanistically, binding of POT1 to telomeric ssDNA and association with TPP1 inhibit the localization of RPA, which can function as a DNA damage sensor, to telomeres. / Dissertation

Single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSB) bind to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) that is generated by molecular machines such as helicases and polymerases. SSBs play crucial roles in DNA translation, replication and repair and their importance is demonstrated by their inclusion across all domains of life. The homotetrameric E. coli SSB and the heterotrimeric human RPA demonstrate how SSBs can vary structurally, but all fulfil their roles by employing oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide binding (OB) folds. Nucleofilaments of SSB proteins bound to ssDNA sequester the ssDNA strands, and in doing so protect exposed bases, keep the ssDNA in conformations favoured by other proteins that metabolise DNA and also recruit other proteins to bind to ssDNA. This thesis focuses on the SSB from the archaeon S. solfataricus (SsoSSB), and has found SsoSSB to be a monomer that binds cooperatively to ssDNA with a binding site size of 4-5 nucleotides. Tagging ssDNA and SsoSSB with fluorescent labels allowed the real time observation of single molecule interactions during the initial nucleation event and subsequent binding of an adjacent SsoSSB monomer. This was achieved by interpreting fluorescent traces that have recorded combinations of FRET, protein induced fluorescent enhancement (PIFE) and quenching events. This novel analysis gave precise measurements of the dynamics of the first and second monomers binding to ssDNA, which allowed affinity and cooperativity constants to be quantified for this important molecular process. SsoSSB was also found to have a similar affinity for RNA, demonstrating a promiscuity not found in other SSBs and suggesting further roles for SsoSSB in the cell - possibly exploiting its capacity to protect nucleic acids from degradation. The extreme temperatures that S. solfataricus experiences and the strength of the interaction with ssDNA and RNA make exploring the application of SsoSSB for industrial uses an interesting prospect; and its rare monomeric structure provides an opportunity to investigate the action of OB folds in a more isolated environment than in higher order structures.