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The trend towards family care of children with developmental disabilities has lead us to examine ways to support families. One source of help primary caregivers have available to them is informal social support. Ninety mothers of children with severe developmental disabilities, residing in four Michigan counties (two urban and two rural) were interviewed face-to-face to determine the nature and extent of their informal social support systems. The types of support investigated were perceived, instrumental, emotional, informational and network. Data were analyzed using bivariate and multivariate techniques. The findings indicate that mothers are primarily responsible for the day-to-day care of their children. However, the help they do receive is important to them. Assistance proffered to mothers comes mostly from immediate family members. Although married and working women perceive greater support from some family members, when help with daily tasks was measured, these women did not actually receive any greater assistance. Multivariate analysis revealed that perceived informal social support was associated with better ability to cope and lower levels of stress. The influence of informal social support on life satisfaction was less certain. Ability to cope was significantly correlated with decreased stress and increased life satisfaction. None of the various types of informal support explained coping, stress or life satisfaction. However, emotional support turned out to be a proxy for emotional problems, and so it was associated with higher stress, and lower coping and life satisfaction. None of the other independent variables included in the model (severity of handicap, formal support or life stress) explained the variance in the dependent variables. When actual regression coefficients were examined, it was concluded that increasing the amount of social support to mothers is not a very efficacious approach to helping them reduce their stress and improve their copin

Psychological stress may be a risk factor for essential hypertension. While several variables have been implicated as mediators or moderators of the relationship between stress and high blood pressure, their exact roles and level of importance remain to be elucidated. A key moderating variable may be family history of hypertension. A series of five studies examined the cardiovascular and emotional reactions to stress of normotensive individuals with and without a parental history of hypertension. In an attempt to facilitate the generalizability of the results, the studies used stressors with greater ecological validity than those used in most previous studies of this topic. This aspect of the research aided the examination of a possible mediator of group differences in cardiovascular reactivity, i.e., emotionality. Several studies observed significant group differences in cardiovascular reactivity to stress, suggesting that stress may be more likely to contribute to the development of hypertension in those with a genetic predisposition for the disorder. However, the exaggerated cardiovascular responsivity of individuals with a parental history of hypertension did not appear to be mediated by greater trait or state emotionality.

This thesis attempts to integrate the divorce outcome data concerning children within the stress and coping mechanisms paradigm. The effects of divorce on children are reviewed, as are the major constructs of stress-coping theory. A study is conducted to demonstrate the empirical utility of the theoretical integration of the two domains. The coping resources, styles and efforts of 71 elementary school children from divorced and intact homes were investigated. Data analyses demonstrated that children from divorced homes had lower levels of psychological coping resources, and less effective coping styles and efforts, thus sustaining the theoretical integration. Other significant results revealed developmental trends for some aspects of coping resources and coping styles, and correlations between coping resources and efforts, thereby supporting important conceptualizations in stress-coping theory. Speculations concerning the long-term effects of divorce, differential effects of divorce on boys and girls and recommendations for future investigations are made.

This empirical double-blind multi-centre empirical study assessed the sources of stress, stress-related symptoms, role of psychosocial moderating variables and the role of micronutrients (specifically the effect of intervention with micronutrient supplementation) on stress levels and symptoms in South Africans. The sample consisted of 300 volunteer, English-speaking South Africans from two centres (KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng) who had predetermined stress levels. The participants were evenly divided between the two centres (N=150 each). The Experimental Group (Active group) who comprised 151 participants received a multivitamin and mineral combination, while the Control Group (Placebo) group received a placebo. The research dealt with perceived stressors, coping resources and outcomes in the general population (both at baseline and after intervention). Outcome was assessed using standardized self-report instruments which examined stress levels and symptoms, perception of stress levels, anxiety, psychological general well-being and neurocognitive functions (verbal and visual memory). Univariate and multivariate correlational analyses were performed to investigate correlations and the predictive value of risk and rescue factors for the outcome variables. The findings indicate that there were no significant differences in the number of stressors between the two groups at baseline, although they differed in respect of two particular stressors (A>P regarding concern over children's future; P>A regarding life decisions). An interaction of stressors and moderating variables (life orientation and perceived coping incapacity) have an important role in predicting stress and stress outcome, and outcomes themselves may function as stressors. The bidirectional, circular interactive effects of stressors, moderators and outcomes are important in the stress and coping process. The study failed to find any effect of stress on the neurocognitive functions assessed. No significant treatment effect for the micronutrient was found, but a number of trends in respect of efficacy were suggested by the findings. The findings also suggested particular patterns of interactions in this regard for predicting pre-post differences (delta). Strengths and limitations of the study are highlighted and implications for intervention in respect of a stress management programme are also discussed. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2005.

The purpose of this study was to identify some of the factors associated with stress among primary school teachers in Soshanguve. The three main objectives were: • To identify factors associated with stress among primary school teachers in the township. • To identify signs and symptoms of stress among primary school teachers in the township. • To compare stress experienced by male and female primary school teachers in the township. Questionnaires were administered to a sample of 63 black teachers in the Soshanguve township, which is located north (but near) Pretoria. Statistical analyses revealed the following factors that were identified as major sources of stress: • Inadequate salaries • Lack of parental support • Lack of promotion • Learner ill-discipline • Too many learners in school. The majority of respondents also indicated that they were experiencing some symptoms of stress and above 80% of the respondents stated that they were experiencing muscular aches, worries, headaches, anger, anxiety, depression, frustration, poor concentration and powerlessness. Also, it was found that gender has nothing to do with any source of stress. The researcher has therefore recommended that the Department of Education should establish help care centers where teachers would be enlightened on some techniques on how to handle stress. / Thesis (M.Ed.)-University of Durban-Westville, 2003.

The present study tests a reinforcement model for sex differences in depression. This study examines Biglan, Rothlind, Hops, and Sherman's (1989) hypothesis that although distressed and aggressive behaviors both induce negative emotions in others, the reactions to these behaviors are different: aggressive behavior prompts hostile reactions, whereas distressed behavior prompts solicitousness and deters aggression. Although the Biglan et al. results (1989) indicated that reactions were not influenced by the sex of the person emitting the behavior, this result may be a consequence of the population used. This study examined the hypothesis that reactions of others are influenced by sex-role stereotypes when interactions among acquaintances are evaluated. Two hundred and eighty eight college students rated videotaped scenarios in terms of their feelings and reactions toward a male or female acquaintance engaging in distressed, aggressive, or neutral behavior. The findings; support the hypothesis proposed by Biglan that distressed and aggressive behaviors both induced negative emotions in others, although they elicited different behavioral reactions. That is, distressed behaviors prompted supportive and comforting reactions, whereas aggressive behaviors elicited more hostile, argumentative, and avoiding reactions. This study provides further support for the negative reinforcement hypothesis that proposes that distressed behavior induces negative feelings in others; however, at the same time it prompts others to be solicitous and caring and to refrain from aggressive behaviors (Biglan et al., 1989). However, contrary to expectations, no sex differences were found in the reactions to distressed and aggressive behavior despite the use of methodology more conducive to examining gender specific responses. At this point, the most parsimonious explanation for the findings is that the effect is real, yet small and not very robust. / Department of Psychological Science

The primary purpose of this study was to determine if life stress had any affect on athletic performance and the occurrence of injury. The athletes in this study ranged in age from 17 to 22, and all had the potential and ability to practice and compete at the Division I level in track and field. The goal of the researcher was to collect as much information as possible on each athlete. Each athlete was required to write in a daily journal. A standard set of questions were asked in interviews prior to competition and following competition. Each athlete completed two types of scales prior to competition as well: Everyday Problem Scale (EPS) and Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT). Through this information five common trends emerged: injury with treatment, external distractions, a higher performance was perceived if their family and friends were present at competition, teammate support, and teammate frustration.The researcher believed there was sufficient evidence to dismiss the comparison between the five common trends and the scores of the SCAT and EPS. The SCAT scores were mainly at the moderate level. The average score among all the athletes was approximately "19" or moderate. The EPS dealt with life stress and not athletic stress.The most frequently cited concern by the athletes were financial problems, difficulties with a girlfriend, wanting a relationship with someone, and so forth, but none were consistently cited.The perception of the stressor was an important factor in this study since the athletes perceived each competition either as distressful or eustressful. Depending on how much the athlete perceived each competition as a stressor may have effected his performance. Few stressors were identified but depending on the competition the athlete may have focused so much on the stressor that it became distressful while at another competition the same stressor was not focused on as much so it was viewed as eustressful. / School of Physical Education

The purpose of the study was to investigate adults who have excessive load or demands ("Overloaded Adults") and their readiness level for learning ("Readiness"). The study was intended to discover the relationship, if any, between Overloaded Adults' load and their Readiness, the reasons Overloaded Adults do not participate in particular educational activities, the percentages of Overloaded Adults in a range from "able and willing" to "neither able nor willing" to participate in various educational activities, the power sources Overloaded Adults identify as present or not present, and how Overloaded Adults' demographic characteristics relate to their load and Readiness.The sample in the study consisted of 60 Overloaded Adults. The researcher used a convenience sampling of available passersby walking on downtown sidewalks in four Indiana cities who were willing to stop and complete the written survey, which consisted of two parts: the Type E Stress Inventory developed by Harriet B. Braiker and a questionnaire developed by the researcher. The researcher also conducted 21 tape-recorded telephone interviews. The researcher analyzed the data using the Pearson correlation coefficient statistic and a scatter plot, tallies and percentages, observations, and interview responses incorporated into a profile and description of general themes.The researcher discovered that the majority of adults (77%) walking on downtown sidewalks on Saturdays were Overloaded Adults. Further, the researcher found, unlike McClusky's theory of margin, that there was likely no relationship between Overloaded Adults' load and Readiness and that Overloaded Adults with a surplus of power over load were not necessarily more likely to learn than Overloaded Adults with a surplus of load over power. The researcher also found 1) at least 30 inhibiting conditions or situations that shaped Overloaded Adults' perceptions of their readiness to learn, 2) Overloaded Adults were very willing and somewhat able to participate in various educational activities, 3) Overloaded Adults had numerous available sources of power, and 4) Overloaded Adults with particular demographic characteristics were at high risk for not being ready to learn. Based on these and other findings in the study, the researcher developed a Model for Understanding Overloaded Adults' Readiness Level for Learning. / Department of Educational Leadership