abstract: Although prior research has identified negative consequences from marijuana use, some states are legalizing marijuana for medical use due to its medical utility. In 2010, the State of Arizona passed medical marijuana legislation, yet, to date, little research has been published about the specific population characteristics of medical marijuana users or their criminal activity. The purpose of this study is to present the characteristics of medical marijuana users and examine the relationship between medical marijuana use and crime, including substance use, by comparing four groups which are medical marijuana users with authorized medical marijuana ID card (authorized medical marijuana users, AuMM users), medical marijuana users without authorized medical marijuana ID card (non-authorized medical marijuana users, NonAuMM users), illegal marijuana users without authorized medical marijuana ID card (non-authorized marijuana users, NonAuM users), and non-marijuana users (Non-users). Data were collected from a sample of recently booked arrestees in Maricopa County, Arizona through the Arizona Arrestee Reporting Information Network (AARIN) project. A total of 2,656 adult arrestees participated in the study. Findings show that authorized medical marijuana users were more likely to be male, younger, and high school graduates. Medical marijuana users, on average, were likely to acquire more marijuana and spend more money on obtaining marijuana compared to non-authorized marijuana users. Whereas the authorized medical marijuana users had a higher probability for DUI and drug selling/making than non-marijuana users, non-authorized medical marijuana users had a higher probability for involvement property crime, violent crime, DUI, and drug selling/making than non-marijuana users. Authorized medical marijuana users were less likely to use meth compared to non-authorized medical marijuana users and non-authorized marijuana users. This study suggests that it is important to recognize the non-authorized medical marijuana users under medical marijuana policy as well as the DUI regulations and medical insurance. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Criminology and Criminal Justice 2014

abstract: Although research has documented robust prospective relationships between externalizing symptomatology and subsequent binge drinking among adolescents, the extent to which internalizing symptoms increase risk for drinking remains controversial. In particular, the role of anxiety as a predictor of binge drinking remains unclear. Recent evidence suggests that one possible reason for these mixed findings is that separate dimensions of anxiety may differentially confer risk for alcohol use. The present study tested two dimensions of anxiety - worry and physiological anxiety -- as predictors of binge drinking in a longitudinal study of juvenile delinquents. Overall, results indicate that worry and physiological anxiety showed differential relations with drinking behavior. In general, worry was protective against alcohol use, whereas physiological anxiety conferred risk for binge drinking, but both effects were conditional on levels of offending. Implications for future research examining the role of anxiety in predicting drinking behavior among youth are discussed. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Psychology 2014

O apoio social consiste em recursos provenientes dos laços sociais estabelecidos por um indivíduo e que provém auxílio principalmente em situações adversas, possibilitando amenizar efeitos negativos do estresse, atenuar efeitos psicológicos inerentes às patologias crônicas e promover ações de solidariedade e cidadania. Trata-se de um recurso presente na vida de todos os indivíduos, incluindo usuários de crack, sendo que, nesse caso, a análise de redes sociais mostra-se relevante, tendo em vista as consequências que tal consumo provoca no envolvimento social desses sujeitos, repercutindo nas relações familiares, de trabalho e restrição de possibilidades de cultura, lazer e acesso à saúde. Entre os serviços existentes para atender a essa população está o Consultório na Rua, programa implantado em 2011 e pautado na lógica de redução de danos, o que leva a considerar que esse configura-se como importante fonte de apoio social aos indivíduos atendidos. Entretanto, investigar a percepção dos usuários em relação ao papel de tal serviço em sua rede de apoio social ainda se faz necessário. Dessa forma, objetivou-se analisar as características da rede de apoio social de usuários de crack e o papel do Consultório na Rua para esses indivíduos. Para tanto, foi desenvolvido estudo transversal qualitativo, descritivo-exploratório em uma cidade de médio porte do interior de Minas Gerais, tendo como participantes 17 usuários de crack acompanhados por um programa de Consultório na Rua, bem como os quatro profissionais que compõem tal equipe. A coleta de dados se deu por meio de observação participante, entrevistas semiestruturadas com os usuários de crack e grupo focal com os profissionais. A análise dos dados ocorreu através de análise dos aspectos estruturais da rede de apoio dos usuários, seguida de análise de conteúdo das informações transcritas a partir das diferentes fontes, e, para abordagem metodológica, foi adotada a Análise de Redes Sociais. O estudo foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa, sob Protocolo nº 50051015.4.0000.5393, e foi financiado pela Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo, Processo nº 2016/05135-0. Os resultados apontaram um grupo composto majoritariamente de indivíduos pretos ou pardos, do gênero feminino, solteiros, com ensino fundamental incompleto, sem profissão, sem renda, que professavam a religião católica e com idade média de 37,2 anos. No tocante à rede de apoio dos usuários, evidenciou-se que esta é composta de familiares, pares, membros da comunidade e da equipe do Consultório na Rua, que proveem apoio material, informacional e emocional. Também foi observado que o trabalho desenvolvido pelo Consultório na Rua apresenta potencialidades como o respeito às condições individuais dos usuários, a existência de uma relação de confiança entre usuários e profissionais e a interlocução com a Rede de Atenção Psicossocial. Por outro lado, o serviço enfrenta desafios como a falta de capacitação de profissionais de outras instituições de saúde e a existência de serviços não sensíveis às diferenças de gênero, orientação sexual e estilo de vida dos usuários. Portanto, recomenda-se que a rede de compartilhamento de influências desses sujeitos seja levada em consideração para a elaboração de ações de prevenção e promoção de saúde, ainda que os profissionais de diferentes instituições de saúde trabalhem de modo colaborativo, a fim de combater o estigma sobre os usuários de drogas, e que em estudos futuros se busque explorar profundamente a dinâmica das relações da população em situação de rua, com foco nos apoiadores informais, e que sejam pensadas estratégias de ampliação da perspectiva de atuação do Consultório na Rua, visando os eixos da reabilitação psicossocial / Social support consists in resources derived from social bonds established by an individual and which provides assistance in adverse situations, making it possible to alleviate negative effects of stress, attenuate the psychological effects inherent in chronic pathologies, and promote solidarity and citizenship actions. It is a resource present in the lives of all individuals, including users of crack, and in this case, the analysis of social networks is relevant, considering the consequences that such consumption causes in the social involvement of these subjects, reverberating on family relationships, work and restriction of possibilities of culture, leisure and access to health. Among the services available to attend this population, there is the Outreach Service, a program implemented in 2011 and based on the logic of harm reduction, which leads to consider that this is an important source of social support for the individuals attended by it. However, investigating users\' perceptions regarding the role of such service in their social support network is still necessary. The aim of this study was to analyze the characteristics of the social support network of crack users and the role of this Outreach Service for these individuals. For that, a qualitative, descriptive-exploratory cross-sectional study was carried out in a medium-sized city in the countryside of Minas Gerais, with 17 crack users accompanied in an Outreach Service program, as well as the four professionals that compose the team. Data collection was made through participant observation, semi-structured interviews with crack users and a focus group with professionals. Data analysis was performed through analysis of the structural aspects of the users\' support network, followed by content analysis of the information transcribed from the different sources and, for methodological approach, the Social Networks Analysis was adopted. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee, under protocol no. 50051015.4.0000.5393, and was funded by the Research Support Foundation of the State of São Paulo, process nº 2016/05135-0. The results showed a group composed mainly of black or brown individuals, female, single, with incomplete elementary school, without profession, without income, who professed the Catholic religion and with an average age of 37.2 years. Regarding to the user support network, it has been evidenced that it is composed of family members, peers, members of the community and the team of the Outreach Service, who provide material, informational and emotional support. It was also observed that the work developed by the Outreach Service presents potentialities such as respect for the individual conditions of users, the existence of a trust relationship between users and professionals and the interlocution with the Psychosocial Attention Network. On the other hand, the service faces challenges such as the lack of training of professionals from other health institutions and the existence of services that are not sensitive to the gender, sexual orientation and lifestyle of users. Therefore, it is recommended that the network of sharing of influences of these subjects could be taken into account for the elaboration of actions of prevention and health promotion, although the professionals of different health institutions work in a collaborative way, in order to combat stigma on drug users, and for future studies it is sought to explore deeply the dynamics of the relations of the population in a street situation, with a focus on informal supporters, and to devise strategies to expand the perspective of the Outreach Service, focusing on psychosocial rehabilitation

In general, scholars agree that there are several contextual factors influencing immigrants in the UK to use alcohol and other drugs. Not much is known however about how and to what extend acculturative changes are influencing substance use in immigrants and members of minority ethnic groups. This study aims to develop a better understanding of the predictors of substance use by exploring the impact that acculturative changes have in patterns of substance use amongst Brazilian immigrants in the UK. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was adopted in a cross-national research sample compromised of Brazilian participants residing in the UK (n=164) and Brazilian participants residing in Brazil (n=161). Initially, quantitative analysis was carried out to explore country differences in types, frequency, and predictors of substance use. The quantitative analysis was followed by qualitative data collection to explore in-depth complex issues related to social and cultural factors that underlie the susceptibility of Brazilian immigrants to use alcohol and other drugs. Thematic Analysis was adopted to analyse the qualitative data. It was observed that Brazilians who had immigrated to the UK showed an overall increase in the frequency with which they used substances, however, significant differences were only found in recreational drug use, poly-substance use, and binge drinking. Such shifts were influenced by attitudes, values, and behavioural changes, and were strongly predicted by the stress caused by threat to cultural identity. Both drinking for social motives and gender differences predicted involvement in substance use in Brazilians in the UK and in Brazil, whereas resilience, impulsivity, positive and negative affect, and reasons for drinking motivated by conformity and coping where found to have no effect on patterns of substance use in either of the samples. Overall, it seems that, whilst Brazilians in the UK are motivated by negative reinforcement processes to use substances (e.g. coping), in Brazil participants are motivated by positive reinforcement processes (e.g. enhancement). High contact with both British and Brazilian cultures will only predict substance use when threat to cultural identity moderates this relationship. Brazilian immigrants new to the UK are at greater risk for substance use independent of any acculturative strategies or stresses. Length of residence in the UK does not predict the adoption of integration strategies and the stresses caused by acculturation can be experienced throughout the life course of the Brazilian immigrants in the UK.

Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate, using a longitudinal design, the possible long-term effects of adolescent family background, school performance and substance use on educational performance, psychiatric disorders and substance use related problems during adulthood. A large, prospectively collected general population birth cohort (n = 11017), the Northern Finland 1966 Birth cohort, was used as study population. The database provided information on features of the primary family. The information on the cohort members' school performance, smoking, alcohol use and other substance use was obtained from a questionnaire mailed to the cohort members in 1980. Also information on school performance in various school subjects was obtained at the end of compulsory schooling at the age of 16. The level of education by the age of 31 was gathered from the national Registry of Educational Statistics in Finland. The relevant data for drunk driving offences were collected from the Ministry of Justice files. The Finnish Hospital Discharge Register was used to identify all hospital-treated psychiatric patients. Parental divorce increased the risk of adult educational underachievement. Other family background factors such as unwanted pregnancy, low maternal education and large family size were also associated with low adult educational performance. A history of drunk driving offences was associated both with impaired school performance in adolescence and with educational underachievement in early adulthood. Adolescent regular alcohol use, smoking and other substance use increased the risk for drunk driving offences and hospital-treated substance use disorders in adulthood. The smoking rate among psychiatric patients was about 1.5 times higher than among control subjects without psychiatric hospital treatment. The proportion of smokers was about 50% among subjects with schizophrenia. The initiation age of regular smoking was closely related to the age of onset of schizophrenia, but not to other mental disorders. Among schizophrenia patients the increased likelihood of smoking was associated with paternal smoking in the family environment, but not with any other background factors. Low overall mean scores and low combined mathematical and natural science scores at the end of compulsory school were associated with adult regular smoking among schizophrenia patients. This study gives new information on risk factors that affect educational attainment, substance use related problems and psychiatric morbidity within the developmental pathway from adolescence to adulthood.

Magister Artium (Psychology) - MA(Psych) / There is an overwhelming concern about substance use amongst adolescents across the world, especially in low socio-economic status communities. The South African Substance Use Contextual Risk Instrument was developed to capture the contextual risk factors for adolescents in low socio-economic status South African communities. This study is part of a larger study which aimed to develop and conduct the initial validation of the instrument. In piloting the instrument, both English and isiXhosa mother tongue speakers were tested using the English version since the instrument is only available in English. The equivalence of the measure across the English and isiXhosa mother tongue speakers is however unknown. The purpose of this study is therefore to assess the scalar equivalence of the English version across the English and isiXhosa mother tongue speakers. The total sample was 674 consisting of 420 English and 247 isiXhosa language groups from low socio-economic status communities in Cape Town. The study employed the Hoteling’s T square test (to assess significant difference of means between the groups), the equality of reliabilities (to assess the significance of differences between the scale reliabilities) and the Tucker’s Phi coefficient of congruence (to assess the congruence of the construct across the two groups). In assessing the mean differences, the results revealed that there were significant mean differences, with the isiXhosa-speaking group performing significantly lower than the English-speaking group for most of the scales. Internal consistency was also generally lower for the isiXhosa group. The structural congruence revealed that there was incongruence between the two language groups for most of the scales with an exception of two of the twenty one scales. It can thus be concluded that the measure cannot be accepted as structurally equivalent across the two groups. It is clear that bias exists in the majority of the scales of the SASUCRI and that this version is thus not applicable for an isiXhosa speaking sample. The study recommends that the instrument is adapted for the isiXhosa speaking group. / National Research Foundation (NRF)

Rape is a highly prevalent crime, and it is one of the most severe traumatic events experienced by women. Previous researchers have found that, unlike other crimes, blame attribution in rape cases is inconsistent and influenced by many external elements (Bieneck & Krahe, 2011; Grubb & Turner, 2012; Masser, Lee, & McKimmie, 2010; Stewart & Jacquin, 2010). In this study, the influence of willing substance use and race on attribution of blame from a sample of 316 undergraduate students attending a large, Southeastern, public, urban university was examined. More specifically, results from this investigation described how the type of substance (alcohol, marijuana, and heroin) consumed by female survivors and survivors’ race/ethnicity (Black, Hispanic, and White) influenced the level of blame assigned to them. Additionally, the researcher explored the interactive effect of the drug type and survivors’ race. The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that both survivors’ substance use and race significantly influenced blame attribution. Survivors who consumed alcohol prior to the assault were blamed more than survivors who used heroin or marijuana and survivors who did not consume any substances. Regarding the influence of survivors’ race/ethnicity, White female survivors were attributed significantly higher levels of blame than Black and Hispanic female survivors. In addition to the examined conditions of substance use and race/ethnicity, the results of this study indicated that observers’ demographic characteristics influenced blame attribution as well. Observers’ gender, race, and knowledge of a person who has survived rape were all significant factors effecting attribution of blame.

Magister Curationis - MCur / Background: Motivational interviewing is an approach that relates to a person’s hopes and aspirations. It is individual-focused to enhance intrinsic motivation to change. Over a decade, motivational interviewing has been shown to help achieve positive client outcome regarding substance use at various health settings in high income countries. In the Western Cape, clinical evidence suggests there is increase in number of children born with abnormalities related to prenatal exposure to substance. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the current support system in place for women who have children that are suffering from the effect of prenatal substance exposure seems not to be helping. As agents of change some NGOs in Western Cape are working towards decreasing substance use among pregnant women. Problem statement: The NGOs involve groups of individuals in Cape Town who render their service voluntarily to help pregnant women who have problem of substance use. They help motivate and support pregnant women to live a healthy lifestyle. It is however uncertain if personnel in these NGOs have knowledge of motivational interviewing. Aim: In the absence of the above information, this study is therefore aimed to explore NGO personnel’s knowledge on the use of motivational interviewing in addressing substance use among pregnant women in Western Cape. Method: A quantitative approach using a descriptive design with a non-probability all-inclusive sampling was used. A total of 45 participants were drawn from NGO shelters and day centres working with pregnant women who use substance in the Southern sub-urban district of Cape Town metropolis. Structured questionnaires were given to the participants for data collection and the response rate was 53% (n=24). Data was analysed using descriptive statistics. Results: The results of the study showed that the general performance of the participants on knowledge of motivational interviewing was poor. The score of most participants (i.e. mode) fell within 31 – 40%. Hence, the distribution of the scores was skewed toward the failed side. The percentages of males and females that passed were very low and the values were very close. Hence, gender was found not to influence the performance of the participants in this study. Lack of training in motivational interviewing was found to be responsible for lack of knowledge of the concept. There was no correlation between years of experience and age of participants on performance in the evaluation. The knowledge of participants on characteristics of substance user and the dynamic client-therapist’s interaction was very shallow. Participants who agreed to myths regarding substance users were most likely to exhibit actions that were not consistent with principles of motivational interviewing during their interactions with clients. The participants did not have adequate knowledge of the five basic principles of motivational interviewing. The conclusion of the study was that there was need to train NGO personnel in the concepts of motivational interviewing.

This study examines the influence of acculturative stress on substance use and HIV risk behaviors among recent Latino immigrants. The central hypothesis of the study is that specific religious coping mechanisms influence the relationship that acculturative stress has on the substance use and HIV-risk behaviors of recent Latino immigrants. Within the Latino culture religiosity is a pervasive force, guiding attitudes, behaviors, and even social interactions. When controlling for education and socioeconomic status, Latinos have been found to use religious coping mechanisms more frequently than their Non-Latino White counterparts. In addition, less acculturated Latinos use religious coping strategies more frequently than those with higher levels of acculturation. Given its prominent role in Latino culture, it appears probable that this mechanism may prove to be influential during difficult life transitions, such as those experienced during the immigration process. This study examines the moderating influence of specific religious coping mechanisms on the relationship between acculturative stress and substance use/HIV risk behaviors of recent Latino immigrants. Analyses for the present study were conducted with wave 2 data from an ongoing longitudinal study investigating associations between pre-immigration factors and health behavior trajectories of recent Latino immigrants. Structural equation and zero-inflated Poisson modeling were implemented to test the specified models and examine the nature of the relationship among the variables. Moderating effects were found for negative religious coping. Higher levels of negative religious coping strengthened an inverse relationship between acculturative stress and substance use. Results also indicated direct relationships between religious coping mechanisms and substance use. External and positive religious coping were inversely related to substance use. Negative religious coping was positively related to substance use. This study aims to contribute knowledge of how religious coping influence’s the adaptation process of recent Latino immigrants. Expanding scientific understanding as to the function and effect of these coping mechanisms could lead to enhanced culturally relevant approaches in service delivery among Latino populations. Furthermore this knowledge could inform research about specific cognitions and behaviors that need to be targeted in prevention and treatment programs with this population.

Rates of HIV infection continue to climb among minority populations and men who have sex with men (MSM), with African American/Black MSM being especially impacted. Numerous studies have found HIV transmission risk to be associated with many health and social disparities resulting from larger environmental and structural forces. Using anthropological and social environment-based theories of resilience that focus on individual agency and larger social and environmental structures, this dissertation employed a mixed methods design to investigate resilience processes among African American/Black MSM. Quantitative analyses compared African American/Black (N=108) and Caucasian/White (N=250) MSM who participated in a previously conducted randomized controlled trial (RCT) of sexual and substance use risk reduction interventions. At RCT study entry, using past 90 day recall periods, there were no differences in unprotected sex frequency, however African American/Black MSM reported higher frequencies of days high (P Qualitative data collected among a sub-sample of African American/Black MSM from the RCT (N=21) described the men’s experiences of living with multiple health and social disparities and the importance of RCT study assessments in facilitating reductions in risk behaviors. A cross-case analysis showed different resilience processes undertaken by men who experienced low socioeconomic status, little family support, and homophobia (N=16) compared to those who did not (N=5). The dissertation concludes that resilience processes to HIV transmission risk and related health and social disparities among African American/Black MSM varies and are dependent on specific social environmental factors, including social relationships, structural homophobia, and access to social, economic, and cultural capital. Men define for themselves what it means to be resilient within their social environment. These conclusions suggest that both individual and structural-level resilience-based HIV prevention interventions are needed.