Selenenic acids and other organoselenium compounds are important both in organic and biochemistry. In organic chemistry, syn-elemination of selenoxides is used to prepare alkenes, giving a selenenic acid by-product. In biochemistry, selenocysteine is catalytically active in a variety of selenoenzymes, which have antioxidant properties, and is oxidized to a selenenic acid intermediate. For example, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) plays a role in fighting oxidative damage by catalyzing the reduction of hydroperoxides. Previous studies have shown that the lighter chalcogen analogue of selenenic acid, sulfenic acid, is a powerful antioxidant and that the known antioxidant activity of garlic is attributable to the 2-propenesulfenic acid derived from the compound allicin. This has prompted questions concerning the role of selenenic acid in the antioxidant activity of organoselenium compounds. In order to study the physiochemical properties of selenenic acids –a functional group about which little is known—and to evaluate their potential as antioxidants, a persistent selenenic acid is needed. Herein, the model compound, 9-triptyceneselenenic acid, is prepared by a previously reported procedure and a new pathway is designed, such that its properties and reactivity can be studied. The oxidation of thiols is important in cell signalling, leading to the disulfide bonds implicated in post-translational modification, among other biological roles. While this reaction is presumed to occur through the reaction of thiol with an oxidant that forms sulfenic acid, and from a subsequent reaction of sulfenic acid with another thiol, sulfenic acids are so reactive that they are not usually seen as intermediates. Given the stability of the 9-triptycenesulfenic acid previously synthesized, preliminary kinetic study of the oxidation of 9-triptycenethiol to its corresponding sulfenic acid is made possible.

Selenenic acids and other organoselenium compounds are important both in organic and biochemistry. In organic chemistry, syn-elemination of selenoxides is used to prepare alkenes, giving a selenenic acid by-product. In biochemistry, selenocysteine is catalytically active in a variety of selenoenzymes, which have antioxidant properties, and is oxidized to a selenenic acid intermediate. For example, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) plays a role in fighting oxidative damage by catalyzing the reduction of hydroperoxides. Previous studies have shown that the lighter chalcogen analogue of selenenic acid, sulfenic acid, is a powerful antioxidant and that the known antioxidant activity of garlic is attributable to the 2-propenesulfenic acid derived from the compound allicin. This has prompted questions concerning the role of selenenic acid in the antioxidant activity of organoselenium compounds. In order to study the physiochemical properties of selenenic acids –a functional group about which little is known—and to evaluate their potential as antioxidants, a persistent selenenic acid is needed. Herein, the model compound, 9-triptyceneselenenic acid, is prepared by a previously reported procedure and a new pathway is designed, such that its properties and reactivity can be studied. The oxidation of thiols is important in cell signalling, leading to the disulfide bonds implicated in post-translational modification, among other biological roles. While this reaction is presumed to occur through the reaction of thiol with an oxidant that forms sulfenic acid, and from a subsequent reaction of sulfenic acid with another thiol, sulfenic acids are so reactive that they are not usually seen as intermediates. Given the stability of the 9-triptycenesulfenic acid previously synthesized, preliminary kinetic study of the oxidation of 9-triptycenethiol to its corresponding sulfenic acid is made possible.

X-ray crystallography provides detailed information of the atomic structure of macromolecules that aides in the understanding of their molecular function. In this study, the three-dimensional structures of the Toluene-4-monooxygenase catalytic effector protein (T4moD), NAD(P)H oxidase and choline oxidase were determined. The structures of wild-type and two mutant isoforms of T4moD were solved up to 1.7 resolution. Results from the crystallographic studies indicate that there are significant differences between the X-ray structure and the structure previously solved by NMR. The high-resolution structures have helped to define the potential differences in electrostatic surfaces that may govern the feasibility of protein-protein interactions and also reveal a single, well-defined cavity suitable for toluene binding that has substantial different electrostatic properties among the effector protein family members. The structure of NAD(P)H oxidase from Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis was determined to 1.8 resolution. The flavoenzyme is of considerable interest as it catalyzes the oxidation of two equivalents of NAD(P)H and reduces one equivalent of oxygen to yield two equivalents of water without releasing hydrogen peroxide from the active site. The structure reveals the presence of a redox active cysteine residue that exists as a sulfenic acid and plays an important mechanistic role by reducing hydrogen peroxide to water. Additionally, a tightly bound ADP molecule was discovered in the enzyme which is hypothesized to play an important role in influencing the dual substrate specificity exhibited by the enzyme. The structure of choline oxidase from Arthrobacter globiformis was solved to 1.86 resolution. Choline oxidase catalyzes the four-electron oxidation of choline to glycine betaine via two sequential FAD-dependent reactions. The structure reveals a cavity within the active site, which is suitable for choline binding. This allows for the identification of the putative binding site for choline and residues involved in substrate-binding and catalysis. Additionally, the structure reveals a highly distorted FAD cofactor that contains a C4a-adduct that is proposed to be either an FAD-C4a-OH or FAD-C4a-O2- complex.

Peroxirredoxinas (Prxs) são enzimas que desempenham papéis centrais no metabolismo redox celular, são proteínas abundantes reduzindo peróxidos com uma velocidade extraordinária. As Prxs estão presentes em todos os grupos taxonômicos, possuem várias isoformas com diferentes funções, tais como antioxidantes, chaperonas moleculares e reguladores da transdução de sinal. São peroxidases tióis dependentes baseadas em um resíduo de cisteína catalítico podendo ser divididas em 1-Cys ou 2-Cys, dependendo do número de resíduos de cisteínas envolvidos na catálise. Inicialmente a redução das Prxs foi descrita por ser estritamente dependente de tióis, no entanto nosso grupo demonstrou que o ascorbato também poderia reduzir o sulfênico intermediário das 1-Cys Prx (1-Cys Prx-SOH) em diferentes organismos. Esses dados representam um quebra no paradigma antioxidante tiól específico, mostrando que o ascorbato pode reduzir os ácidos sulfênicos nas 1-Cys Prx. Para obter evidências que o ascorbato possa ser considerado um redutor biológico das 1-Cys Prx, foi necessário determinar a constante de segunda ordem, uma vez que em células, outros compostos podem competir com este antioxidante. Devido a problemas técnicos, este foi um desafio por muitos anos. Neste trabalho, descrevemos a caracterização cinética da redução de ácidos sulfênicos por ascorbato em diferentes proteínas. Primeiramente, a redução das 1-Cys Prx-SOH foi analisado usando a enzima de A. fumigatus (AfPrxA) que apresenta similaridade de 37% com a Prdx6 (1-Cys Prx humana) e foi considerada uma enzima bastante estável. Inicialmente, realizamos a análise bi-substrato utilizando eletrodos específicos para H2O2 (Free Radical Analyzer 4100 da World Precision Instruments Inc.), através de uma abordagem de estado estacionário. AfPrxA decompõem H2O2 em uma reação ascorbato dependente com boa eficiência (kcat/KM asc = 7.4 x 103 M-1s-1), através de um mecanismo Bi-Bi Ping-Pong. Para apoiar ainda mais esses resultados, desenvolvemos uma abordagem cinética independente, baseada na competição entre diclorofenolindofenol (DCPIP) e ácidos sulfênicos por ascorbato. DCPIP é um sensor redox, cuja a coloração azul é perdida quando reduzido. Primeiramente, confirmamos que o DCPIP foi reduzido por ascorbato com uma constante de segunda ordem de 718 M-1s-1, similar a valores descritos na literatura anteriormente. Este método validou nossas condições de ensaio, permitindo determinar a constante de segunda ordem de reação entre AfPrxA-SOH e ascorbato (1,5 x 103 M-1s-1) a pH 7,44, 25ºC através da abordagem de pseudo-primeira ordem. Portanto, por dois métodos diferentes, demonstramos que o ascorbato reduz a AfPrxA-SOH com constantes de velocidade na ordem de 103 M-1s-1. Este ensaio também nos permitiu determinar as constantes de segunda ordem para as 1-Cys Prx de diferentes organismos como bactéria, levedura, planta e mamíferos. Em todos os casos, as constantes de velocidade foram na ordem de 103 M-1s-1. Posteriormente, analisamos se a 2-Cys Prx de levedura (Tsa1), que possui uma mutação na cisteína de resolução por um resíduo de serina (Tsa1-C170S) poderia adquiri atividade ascorbato dependente. Novamente, a forma ácido sulfênico da Tsa1-C170S foi reduzida por ascorbato na mesma ordem de grandeza de 103 M-1s-1. Em adição, decidimos investigar a redução dos Cys-SOH por ascorbato em outras proteínas como Gliceraldeído 3-fosfato desidrogenase (GAPDH) e Papaína que também possuem um ácido sulfênico como produto da oxidação. A constante de segunda ordem obtida da reação com ascorbato foi novamente à mesma ordem de grandeza (103 M-1s-1). Em conclusão, a redução de ácidos sulfênicos presentes nas Prxs por ascorbato pode ser considerada relevante em compartimentos subcelulares em que este redutor esteja presente em grandes quantidades. Além disso, o ascorbato pode reduzir ácidos sulfênicos de outras proteínas, e esta interação pode representar uma nova via na biologia redox que ainda precisa ser explorada in vivo / Peroxiredoxins (Prxs) are enzymes that play central roles in cellular redox metabolism, since they reduce peroxides with extraordinary rates and are abundant proteins. Prxs are found in all kingdoms with multiple isoforms, performing multiple functions such as antioxidants, molecular chaperones, and regulators of signal transduction. Prxs are Cys-based, thiol-dependent peroxidases with remarkable catalytic efficiency that can be divided into 1-Cys or 2-Cys, depending on the number of Cys residues involved in catalysis. Initially, reduction of Prxs was described to be strictly dependent on thiols, but later we showed that ascorbate can also reduce the sulfenic intermediate of 1-Cys Prx (1-Cys Prx-SOH) from various organisms. These data represented a breakthrough in the thiol-specific antioxidant paradigm, as ascorbate can also reduce sulfenic acids in 1-Cys Prx. To gain evidences that ascorbate could be a biological reductant for 1-Cys Prx it was necessary to determinate the respective second order rate constant, since in cells other compounds might compete with this antioxidant. Due to technical issues, this was a challenge for many years. In this work, we describe the kinetic characterization of sulfenic acid reduction by ascorbate in several proteins. Firstly, the reduction of 1-Cys Prx-SOH by ascorbate was analyzed using an enzyme from A. fumigatus (AfPrxA) that is 37% similar to PRDX6 (human 1-Cys Prx) and was quite stable. Initially, a steady-state, bi-substrate approach was followed by means of a specific H2O2 electrode (Free Radical Analyzer 4100, World Precision Instruments Inc.). AfPrxA decomposed H2O2 in an ascorbate dependent manner with good efficiency (kcat/KM asc = 7.4 x103 M-1s-1), through a Bi-Bi Ping-Pong mechanism. To further support these findings, we developed an independent, competitive kinetic approach based on the competition between dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) and sulfenic acid to ascorbate. DCPIP is a redox sensor, whose blue color is lost when reduced. Firstly, we confirmed that in our conditions DCPIP was reduced by ascorbate with a second-order rate constant of 718 M-1s-1, similar to values previously described. This procedure validated our assay conditions and allowed us to proceed in the competitive method for the determination of the second order rate constant of the reaction of AfPrxA-SOH with ascorbate (1,5 x 103M-1s-1) at pH 7.44, 25ºC by pseudo first order approach. Therefore, by two independent approaches, we showed that ascorbate reduced AfPrxA-SOH with rate constants in the 103 M-1s-1 range. It also allowed us to determine the second order rate constants for the reduction 1-Cys Prxs from other organisms such as bacteria, yeast, plant and mammal. In all cases, the rate constants were in the 103 M-1s-1 range. Subsequently, we analyzed whether a recombinant yeast 2-Cys Prx (Tsa1), whose resolving Cys (Cysr) was mutated to a serine residue (Tsa1-C170S) acquired the ascorbate dependent activity. Again, the sulfenic acid form of Tsa1-C170S was reduced by ascorbate in the same 103 M-1s-1 range. In addition, we decided to investigate the reduction of Cys-SOH by ascorbate in other proteins like glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and Papain that also have a sulfenic acid as product of their oxidation. The second order rate constants obtained for the reaction with ascorbate were again in the same range (103 M-1s-1). In conclusion, the reduction of sulfenic acids present in Prx by ascorbate might be relevant in the subcellular compartments in which this reductant is present at high levels, capable to compete with other reductants. Furthermore, ascorbate can reduce sulfenic acid in other proteins, and this interaction may represent a new route in redox biology that has yet be explored in vivo

Organosulfur compounds have been used by humans for centuries and played a pivotal role in shaping our history. The chemistry presented herein deals primarily with three distinct organic transformations involving organosulfur species. The three transformations are used in tandem to complete the synthesis of natural products. The first chapter examines a new diastereoselective alkylation reaction of sulfenate anions with stereoinduction provided by chiral amino iodides. A series of β-amino sulfoxides are accessed in good yields and selectivities from alkylations with the corresponding lithium arene- and E-1-alkenesulfenate anions. The relative reactivity of different electrophiles towards a selection of lithium sulfenate anions was also evaluated by performing competition experiments. In the second chapter 1,2-dibromotetrachloroethane (C2Br2Cl4) was evaluated as a more economical halogenating agent for the in-situ Ramberg-Bäcklund rearrangement (RBR). A series of trans-stilbenoids were successfully synthesized using this protocol in excellent yields. The new RBR system also worked well for dialkyl and cyclic substrates, but the reaction was plagued by polyhalogenation for hexyl benzyl sulfone. The methodology was extended to the formal total synthesis of natural polyphenol E-resveratrol. Chapter three investigates asymmetric aza-Michael reactions of chiral β-amino sulfoxides/sulfones to synthesize thiomorpholine S-oxides and S,S-dioxides, respectively. Remarkably, cyclizations of the β-amino sulfoxides provide the trans- 3,5-substituted heterocycles, while the β-amino sulfones provide the complementary cis-3,5-substituted heterocycles. The aza-Michael chemistry was exploited along with the sulfenate and RBR protocols to access two ant venom alkaloids. / NSERC

Die oxidative Transformation der Thiol-Gruppe des Cysteins in verschiedene andere funktionelle Gruppen wird als sehr wichtige posttranslationale Modifikation (PTM) angesehen. Cysteinsulfensäure (SA) ist eine Zwischenstufe der Thiol-Oxidation: Sie kann entweder mit freien Thiolen reagieren, um Disulfide zu bilden oder durch reaktive Sauerstoffspezies (reactiveoxygenspecies, ROS) weiter oxidiert werden. Jede Störung des zellulären Redox-Haushalts wird mit altersbedingten Erkrankungen , daher stellt die Überwachung des SA-Spiegels einen vielversprechenden Wegdar, den Status dieses Redox-Haushalts festzustellen. Da bereits kleinste Änderungen der Proteinmengen und PTMs tiefe Einblicke in den Zustand des biologischen Systems liefern können, ist eine quantitative Bestimmung von großer Bedeutung.Technologische Fortschritte im Bereich der Trennungsmethoden und Massenspektrometrie (MS) erlaubten die Entwicklung umfassender Möglichkeiten in der Protein-Analytik. In dieser Arbeit wurde eine neue, hochsensitive und selektive Methode zur Detektion von SA entwickelt. Dafür wurde ein Alkin-β-Ketoester (KE) an einen Lanthanid-haltigen (Ln) Chelatkomplex. Zum Nachweis des Funktionsprinzips wurden, mittels H2O2, Sulfensäuren in verschiedenen Peptidsequenzen erzeugt, um die in biologischen Systemen durch ROS hervorgerufenen Oxidationen nachzustellen. Diese Sulfensäuren wurden anschließend durch den Ln-DOTA-KE-Komplex gebunden. Die Bildung dieser SA-Ln-DOTA-KE-Einheit wurde mittels (Elektronenspray-Ionisation/ ESI-MS) und (induktiv gekoppeltem Plasma/ICP-MS) nachverfolgt. Die entwickelte Methode wurde weiterhin auf die Bestimmung von SA-Bildung in humanem Serum angewandt, humanes Serumalbumin wurde angereichert via Affinitätschromatographie. ICP-MS diente der Bestimmung der SA-Ln-DOTA-KE-Einheit, durch Kombination mit einer Isotopenverdünnungsanalyse (IDA) wurde eine absolute Quantifizierung durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen oxidative Schäden bis zu 40 % des vorhandenen Albumins. / Oxidative transformation of cysteine thiol group into different functional groups is considered a significant posttranslational modification (PTM) of great importance. Cysteine sulfenic acid (SA) is the transient state for thiol group oxidation; it can react with free thiols to form disulfide bonds or can be further oxidized with reactive oxygen species (ROS) to form sulfinic and sulfonic acids. As any disturbance in the cellular reduction-oxidation (redox) balance is correlated to age-related diseases, the detection of SA transient state formed a sensor for such redox-mediated events. Whereas only any small change in the quantity of proteins, as well as the formed PTMs, can provide deeper insights into the status of the biological system, quantitative analysis should be carried out to reveal the status of the system. On the other hand, the technological advances, in particular the separation techniques and mass spectrometry (MS), allowed the development of several approaches for the comprehensive assessment of proteome analysis. Herein, we provide a new strategy for the highly sensitive and specific detection of SA using alkyne β-ketoester (KE) previously linked to a lanthanide (Ln)-containing chelator (Ln-DOTA. SA was generated by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in different peptide sequences by ROS and was detected by the prepared compound Ln-DOTA-KE. Molecular mass spectrometry (electrospray/ ESI-MS) and (Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry /ICP-MS) have been used to monitor the formation of SA linked to Ln-DOTA-KE. The developed strategy has been further applied to the determination of SA-induced formation in human serum by using affinity chromatography for purification of albumin followed by ICP-MS to monitor the formed SA linked to Ln-DOTA-KE in combination with isotope dilution analysis (IDA) for the absolute quantification. Quantitative results showed levels of oxidative damage regarding SA formation in human serum up to 40% of the albumin present.

Les peroxydases à thiol jouent un rôle central dans la physiologie du peroxyde d’hydrogène (H2O2), un oxydant possédant une fonction de messager cellulaire. Ces enzymes catalysent la réduction de H2O2 par réaction avec une Cys catalytique, ce qui leur confère la capacité de jouer le rôle de détecteur et relais du message redox. Chez Saccharomyces cerevisiae, l’activation H2O2-dépendante du facteur de transcription Yap1, un régulateur clef de la réponse au stress oxydant, dépend de la formation de ponts disulfure intramoléculaires catalysés par la peroxydase à thiol Orp1, via la réaction de l’intermédiaire acide sulfénique avec une Cys de Yap1 pour former un complexe disulfure mixte. L’étude des mécanismes à l’origine de la spécificité de la réaction entre Orp1 et Yap1, et du rôle de la protéine Ybp1 comme partenaire essentiel de l’activation de Yap1, constitue la question centrale de ce travail. Nos résultats montrent que Ybp1 permet de recruter Yap1 et Orp1 au sein d’un complexe ternaire au sein duquel (i) la cinétique de la réaction entre les deux partenaires est fortement activée, et (ii) la compétition avec la formation d’un pont disulfure intramoléculaire dans Orp1 est inhibée. La spécificité de l’activation de Yap1 par H2O2 repose donc sur des mécanismes qui combinent à la fois la réactivité chimique intrinsèque de l’acide sulfénique, et la reconnaissance moléculaire entre Yap1, Orp1 et Ybp1 qui jouerait un rôle de protéine « de charpente ». Ces principes, assurant une activation rapide et spécifique des défenses antioxydantes de la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae, pourraient s’appliquer à d’autres voies de signalisation dépendantes des peroxydases à thiol / Thiol-peroxidases play a central role in the physiology of hydrogen peroxide, an oxidant which can act as a cellular messenger. They catalyze H2O2 reduction by the very efficient reaction of a catalytic Cys residue, responsible for their ability to act as an H2O2 sensor and relay. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the H2O2-activation of the transcription factor Yap1, a key regulator of oxidative stress response, depends on the formation of intramolecular disulfide bonds catalyzed by the thiol peroxidase Orp1, through the reaction of the sulfenic acid intermediate with a Cys of Yap1 to form a mixed disulfide complex. Due to the high reactivity of the sulfenic acid species, several reactions can compete with Yap1. The study of the mechanisms underlying the specificity of the reaction between Orp1 and Yap1, and of the role of the Ybp1 protein as an essential partner of Yap1 activation, is the central question of this work. Our results show that Ybp1 can recruit Yap1 and Orp1 within a ternary complex that allows (i) strong activation of the reaction between the two partners and (ii) inhibition of the competition raised by the formation of an intramolecular disulfide bond within Orp1. The specificity of the activation of Yap1 by H2O2 therefore relies on mechanisms that combine intrinsic chemical reactivity of the sulfenic acid species and molecular recognition between Yap1, Orp1 and Ybp1, which would act as a scaffold. These principles, which afford rapid and specific activation of antioxidant defenses in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, could apply to other redox signaling pathways dependent on thiol peroxidase as a H2O2 sensor