No description available.

Le parasite Trypanosoma brucei est retrouvé en Afrique sub-Saharienne et est responsable de la maladie du sommeil chez l’homme et de la Nagana chez les animaux. Il cause de graves problèmes sanitaires et économiques car il affecte le bétail. La vaccination est impossible à cause de la variation antigénique. Les traitements actuels sont difficiles à mettre en place avec des effets secondaires importants. Il est donc urgent de trouver de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques afin de développer de nouveaux médicaments. T. brucei possède un flagelle unique qui émerge de la cellule par une structure appelée la poche flagellaire (FP). Cette FP est une invagination de la membrane plasmique. Elle est nécessaire à la survie du parasite car c’est le seul site d’endo- et d’exocytose. Au cou de la FP on trouve le collier de la poche flagellaire (FPC) en forme d’anneau. Le FPC est composé de nombreuses protéines dont BILBO1 qui est nécessaire à la biogenèse de la FP et du FPC. De nombreux partenaires de BILBO1 ont été identifiés. Dans cette thèse, je caractérise deux d’entre eux : FPC5, une kinésine putative et FPC9, une synaptotagmine putative. J’ai pu montrer que FPC5 est localisée aux corps basaux mais aussi au FPC. Cette protéine n’est pas essentielle à la survie des parasites bien que des phénotypes de croissance et de ségrégation de la FP apparaissent après induction de l’ARNi. Nous ne sommes pas parvenus à prouver sa fonctionnalité, cependant j’ai pu montrer que son domaine moteur est capable de lier les microtubules. FPC9 est trouvée au niveau de la zone de transition du flagelle. L’ARNi contre cette protéine n’étant pas effectif, nous ne pouvons pas conclure quant à sa fonction dans la cellule. / Trypanosoma brucei is a parasite found in sub-Saharan Africa and is responsible for sleeping sickness in humans and Nagana in animals. It is the source of serious health and economic problems because it kills livestock. Vaccination is not possible because of antigenic variation and current treatments are difficult to implement or have toxic side effects. For these reasons it is urgent to find new therapeutic targets in order to develop effective treatments. T. brucei has a single copy flagellum that emerges from the cytoplasm through a unique structure called the Flagellar Pocket (FP). This pocket is an invagination of the pellicular membrane and because it is the sole site of endo- and exocytosis, it is essential for parasite survival. At the neck of the FP there is a cytoskeletal structure: the Flagellar Pocket Collar (FPC) that forms a “ring” around the flagellum. The FPC consists of numerous proteins, including the first to be identified - BILBO1, which is necessary for FP and FPC biogenesis. A number of potential BILBO1 partners were identified. In this thesis I characterize two of these proteins: FPC5, a putative kinesin and FPC9, a putative synaptotagmin. I show that FPC5 localizes mainly in the basal body area, but also at the FPC. This protein is not essential for parasite survival although reduced FP segregation and growth phenotypes appear after RNAi induction. We are not able to prove its functionality, however I could show its motor domain is able to bind microtubules. FPC9 is found in the transition zone of the flagellum. However RNAi knockdown against this protein was not efficient, so we are currently unable to define a function for this protein.

No description available.

Spinal cord injury induces anatomical plasticity throughout the nervous system, including distant locations in the brain. Several types of injury-induced plasticity have been identified, such as neurite sprouting, axon regeneration and synaptic remodeling. However, the molecular mechanisms involved in anatomical plasticity after injury are unclear, as is the extent to which injury-induced plasticity in the brain is conserved across vertebrate lineages. Here, I used lampreys to identify the molecular mechanisms in mediating anatomical plasticity, because lampreys undergo anatomical plasticity and functional recovery after a complete spinal cord transection. Due to their robust roles in neurite outgrowth during neuronal development, I examined synapsin and synaptotagmin for their potential involvement in anatomical plasticity after injury. I found increased synapsin I mRNA throughout the lamprey brain as well as increased protein levels of synapsin I, phospho-synapsin (Ser 9) and synaptotagmin in the lamprey hindbrain after injury, suggestive of anatomical plasticity. Anatomical plasticity was confirmed at the ultrastructural level, where I found increased neurite density in the lamprey hindbrain after injury. Other molecular mechanisms that promote anatomical plasticity have been previously identified, such as cyclic AMP (cAMP). However, the cellular mechanisms and the molecular targets of cAMP in mediating anatomical plasticity are unclear. My investigation of cAMP revealed that cAMP enhanced the number of regenerated axons beyond the lesion site in lampreys after injury. For the first time in a spinal cord injury model, I found cAMP prevented the death of axotomized neurons that normally have a high tendency to die after injury. In addition, cAMP promoted more regenerating axons to re-grow in straighter paths rather than turning rostrally towards the brain stem. At the molecular level, I found cAMP increased synaptotagmin protein level at the regenerating axon tips, suggestive of enhanced axon elongation. Taken together, my results show that neurite sprouting in the brain and the cAMP-enhanced axon regeneration are conserved responses in vertebrates after spinal cord injury. In addition, my results suggest that at least some developmental pathways are activated during injury-induced and cAMP-enhanced anatomical plasticity. Further understanding of these pathways will provide insights for improving recovery after spinal cord injury. / text

Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 2005. / Not embargoed. Vita. Bibliography: 229-249.

A l’arrivée d’un potentiel d’action au niveau d’une synapse neuronale, des ions calcium (Ca2+) pénètrent dans le neurone, permettant aux protéines SNAREs (N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor activating protein receptor) de s’assembler entièrement, engendrant la fusion des vésicules synaptiques contenant les neurotransmetteurs avec la membrane plasmique du neurone. Des protéines régulatrices telles que la Complexine et la Synaptotagmine sont étroitement couplées aux SNAREs et permettent une fusion rapide et synchrone. La Synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1), une protéine transmembranaire localisée sur les vésicules synaptiques, est le senseur calcique de la neurotransmission. Syt1 possède deux domaines de liaison au Ca2+, C2A et C2B, un domaine flexible reliant la région membranaire au C2A, ainsi qu’un court lien entre C2A et C2B. Il a été montré qu’une région polybasique dans le C2B se liait aux lipides anioniques tels que phosphatidylserine (PS) et phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) en l’absence de Ca2+. A l’entrée du Ca2+, les ions Ca2+ se lient au C2A et au C2B. La liaison de Syt1 aux ions Ca2+ permet aux résidus non polaires à proximité des sites de liaison au Ca2+ de s’insérer dans la membrane. Si ces mécanismes sont relativement bien acceptés, les mécanismes biochimiques et biophysiques précis du déclenchement de la fusion induit par la liaison de Syt1 au Ca2+ restent flous. Dans ce travail, nous mesurons directement les interactions de Syt1 liée à une membrane avec des membranes anioniques comprenant des lipides PS et PIP2 par un appareil à force de surface (SFA), afin d’imiter la membrane d’une vésicule synaptique contenant Syt1 interagissant avec la membrane plasmique anionique. Nous réalisons une mutagénèse dirigée sur les sites de liaison au Ca2+ de C2A et C2B, ainsi que sur le site polybasique de C2B, pour entièrement cartographier les énergies de liaison à la membrane relatives à ces sites, à la fois en présence et en l’absence d’ions divalents. Nous trouvons que Syt1 se lie avec une énergie de ~6 kBT dans l’EGTA, ~10 kBT dans le Mg2+, et ~18 kBT dans le Ca2+. Des réarrangements moléculaires mesurés pendant le confinement de Syt1 entre les membranes prévalent dans le Ca2+ et dans le Mg2+, et suggèrent que Syt1 se lie initialement via le C2B puis réoriente ses domaines C2 dans la conformation de liaison privilégiée. La neutralisation des sites de liaison au Ca2+ de C2B engendre une réduction radicale de l’énergie de liaison de Syt1 dans le Ca2+, alors que la même mutation dans le C2A a un effet plus nuancé. Ces résultats éclairent sur la coopérativité de C2A et C2B dans leur liaison à la membrane, et montrent un rôle apparent prédominant de C2B. / Upon arrival of an action potential at the neuronal synapse, calcium ions (Ca2+) enter the neuron, allowing soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor activating protein receptor (SNARE) proteins to fully zipper, leading to the fusion of pre-docked synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters with the plasma membrane of the neurone. Regulatory proteins such as Complexin and Synaptotagmin are closely coupled to SNAREs during synaptic vesicle fusion and lead to synchronous, fast fusion. Synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1) is a transmembrane protein found in synaptic vesicles and is the Ca2+ sensor for synaptic transmission. Syt1 has two Ca2+ binding domains, C2A and C2B, with a flexible linker domain from the membrane region to C2A, and a short linker between C2A and C2B. A polybasic patch in C2B has been shown to bind to anionic lipids such as phophidylserine (PS) and phosphisotinol (PIP2) in the absence of Ca2+. Upon Ca2+ influx, Ca2+ ions bind in C2A and C2B. Ca2+ binding to Syt1 allows non-polar residues nearby the Ca2+ binding sites to insert into the membrane. While these mechanisms are relatively well-accepted, the precise biochemical and biophysical mechanisms for the Syt1 Ca2+ trigger remain unclear. In this work, we directly measure the interactions of Syt1-coated membranes with anionic membranes including PS and PIP2 lipids by the surface forces apparatus (SFA) technique, in order to mimic a Syt1-coated synaptic vesicle membrane interacting with the anionic plasma membrane. We perform site directed mutagenesis of the Ca2+ binding sites of C2A and C2B, along with the polybasic patch in C2B, to fully map the site-binding energetics of Syt1 with membranes, both in the absence and presence of divalent ions. We find that Syt1 binds with ~6 kBT in EGTA, ~10 kBT in Mg2+, and ~18 kBT in Ca2+. Molecular rearrangements measured during confinement of Syt1 between membranes are more prevalent in Ca2+ and Mg2+ and suggest that Syt1 initially binds through C2B, then reorients the C2 domains into the preferred binding configuration. Neutralization of C2B Ca2+ binding site leads to a drastic decrease of Syt1 binding energy in Ca2+, while the same mutation in C2A has a milder effect. These results illuminate that C2A and C2B cooperate in membrane binding, with an apparent predominant role of C2B.

No description available.

Les neurones dopaminergiques (DAergiques) libèrent non seulement de la DA à partir de leurs terminaisons axonales, mais également dans le mésencéphale au niveau de la substance noire (SN) et l’aire tegmentaire ventrale (ATV). À cet endroit, un mécanisme de libération somatodendritique (STD) de DA a été proposé et impliquerait des senseurs calciques différents de ceux retrouvés du côté axonal. Au niveau axonal, la synaptotagmine 1 (Syt1) est une protéine essentielle à la libération rapide de DA. Toutefois, des études de notre laboratoire sur des knockout conditionnels (cKO) de Syt1 dans les neurones DA démontrent une diminution substantielle de la libération de DA au niveau axonal, mais aussi dans le mésencéphale. Une première hypothèse expliquant cette diminution dans le mésencéphale serait que Syt1 est impliquée dans la libération STD. Cependant, nous observons par microscopie à super-résolution que Syt1 ne se retrouve pas dans le compartiment STD des neurones DAergiques. Une autre possibilité serait la présence de collatérales axonales DAergiques dans le mésencéphale. Par imagerie confocale et électronique, nous observons que le mésencéphale contient plusieurs varicosités axonales asynaptiques et quelques varicosités axonales synaptiques. Enfin, nous avons évalué la plasticité des collatérales axonales DAergiques dans un modèle de lésion partielle des neurones DAergiques induite par la 6-OHDA. Malgré la perte de plus de 40% des neurones DA, la libération de DA dans la SN persiste 14 jours après lésion et s’accompagne d’une augmentation de l’expression axonale de Syt1, suggérant qu’un mécanisme de compensation axonale contribue à la résilience de la libération de DA. / Dopaminergic (DA) neurons not only exhibit a classic vesicular release from their axons in the striatum, but they also release DA in the midbrain in the substantia nigra (SN) and ventral tegmental area (VTA). In this region, somatodendritic (STD) release occurs and it requires different calcium sensors than those found in the axons. Of interest, synaptotagmin 1 (Syt1) has been shown to be implicated in fast DA release in the axons. However, recent research in our lab shows that in mice with conditional knockout (cKO) of Syt1 in DA neurons, there is a substantial decrease of DA release not only in the striatum, but also in the midbrain. Our first hypothesis is that Syt1 is directly involved in STD release. With super-resolution microscopy, we concluded that Syt1 is not localized in the STD compartment of DA neurons. This brings us to our second hypothesis, where local DA axon collaterals contribute to DA release in the midbrain. Through confocal and electron microscopy, we observed that the midbrain contains asynaptic varicosities as well as local DA synapses. In light of these results, we explored the contribution of axonal release to the resilience of SN DA release in a partial 6-OHDA lesion model. We observed that, following a loss of more than 40% of DA neurons, DA release in the SNc persists 14 days after lesion and that this is accompanied by an increase in Syt1 expression in DA axons which suggest that local axonal release is increased to compensate for DA loss.

No description available.

Synaptic plasticity describes efficacy changes in synaptic transmission and ranges in duration from tens to hundreds of milliseconds (short-term), to hours and days (long-term). Short-term plasticity plays crucial roles in synaptic computation, information processing, learning, working and short-term memory as well as its dysfunction in psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. The main aim of my PhD thesis was to determine the molecular mechanisms of different forms of presynaptic plasticity. Short-term facilitation increases neurotransmitter release in response to a high-frequency pair (paired-pulse facilitation; PPF) or train (train facilitation; TF) of presynaptic stimuli. Synaptotagmin 7 (Syt7) has been shown to act as residual calcium (Ca$_{res}$) sensor for PPF and TF at various synapses. Syt7 also seems to be involved in recovery from depression, whereas its role in neurotransmission remains controversial. My aim was to express Syt7 in a synapse where it is not normally found and determine how it affects short-term synaptic plasticity. Immunohistochemistry indicated that Syt7 is not localized to cerebellar climbing fibers (CFs). Wild-type (WT) and Syt7 knockout (KO) recordings at CF to Purkinje cell (CF-PC) synapses established that at near-physiological external calcium (Ca$_{ext}$) levels both genotypes displayed similar recovery from paired-pulse depression. In low Ca$_{ext}$,WT CF-PC synapses showed robust PPF, which turned out to be independent of Syt7. All my experiments strongly suggested that WT CFs do not express native Syt7, but display low Ca$_{ext}$ CF-PC PPF and TF. Thus, channelrhodopsin-2 and Syt7 were bicistronically expressed via AAV9 virus in CFs. This ectopic Syt7 expression in CFs led to big increases in low-Ca$_{ext}$ CF-PC facilitation, more than doubling PPF and more than tripling TF. While overexpression of Syt7 might turn out to have an effect on the initial release probability (pr), the observed CF-PC facilitation increase still critically depended on presynaptic Syt7 expression. And when comparing only cells in a defined EPSC1 amplitude range, the Syt7-induced increase in low-Ca$_{ext}$ PPF could not be accounted for by changes in initial pr, suggesting a general role for Syt7 as calcium sensor for facilitation. Another form of short-term plasticity, post-tetanic potentiation (PTP), is believed to be mediated presynaptically by calcium-dependent protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms that phosphorylate Munc18-1 proteins. It is unknown how generally applicable this mechanism is throughout the brain and if other proteins might be able to modulate PTP. Combining genetic (PKCαβy triple knockout [TKO] and Munc18-1SA knock-in [Munc18 KI] mice, in which Munc18- 1 cannot get phosphorylated) with pharmacological tools (PKC inhibitor GF109203), helped us show that PTP at the cerebellar parallel fiber to Purkinje cell (PF-PC) synapse seems to depend on PKCs but seems mostly independent of Munc18-1 phosphorylation. In addition, compared to WT animals, genetic elimination of presynaptic active zone protein Liprin-α3 led to similar PF-PC PTP and paired-pulse ratios (PPRs). At the hippocampal CA3-CA1 synapse previous pharmacological studies suggested that PKC mediates PTP. A genetic approach helped to show that calcium dependent PKCs do not seem to be required for CA3-CA1 PTP. Pharmacologically inhibiting protein kinase A as well as genetically eliminating Syt7 also had no effect on CA3-CA1 PTP. In addition, Ca IM-AA mutant mice, in which Ca$_{v}$2.1 channels have a mutated IQ-like motif (IM) so that it cannot get bound by calcium sensor proteins any more, not only displayed regular PTP, but also normal PPF and TF at CA3-CA1 synapses. In conclusion, my PhD thesis helped further characterize different forms of presynaptic plasticity, underlined that short-term synaptic plasticity can be achieved through diverse mechanisms across the Mammalian brain and supported a potentially general role for synaptotagmin 7 acting as residual calcium sensor for facilitation.