The objective of this thesis is to improve understanding of the development of corrosion products (scales) that form on the inner walls of carbon steel pipelines in CO2-rich (sweet) oilfield environments. If well adherent to the carbon steel surface, such scales can significantly reduce the metal’s rate of corrosion. Typically, the open literature labels sweet corrosion scale as ferrous (II) carbonate (FeCO3) or siderite, although this may not always be the case. For example, Fe2(OH)2CO3 (chukanovite) and Fe3O4 (magnetite) are known to modify the protective character of a sweet corrosion product scale. Practical electrochemical methods for the assessment of substrate corrosion, and electron/photon-based characterisation techniques for investigating scale structure and composition, have revealed interesting aspects of the nature of sweet corrosion scale development on model high purity Fe and real-world pipeline steel surfaces. Concerning scale development on model Fe substrates immersed in CO2-saturated deionised water (buffered to pH = 6.8, T = 80°C, Ptotal = 1 bar), electrochemical data supplemented by grazing incidence x-ray diffraction (GIXRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) show that a semi-protective mixed corrosion scale comprising siderite and chukanovite becomes a highly protective siderite scale with longer exposure time. The introduction of sodium chloride to the CO2-saturated solution (T = 80°C, pH = 6.8, Ptotal = 1 bar) impedes the rate of scale formation. Increasing [NaCl] from the start of experiment is suspected to limit the precipitation kinetics of sweet corrosion scale crystals, since chukanovite is no longer observed, and siderite formation is somewhat slowed as well. SEM imaging, using an electronic workfunction-sensitive detector (in lens), reveals nanoscale deposits on the corroded Fe surface in regions that are devoid of µm-scale crystals. With the Raman spectra from these regions considered, it is interpreted that the nanoscale deposits are likely amorphous iron carbonate, albeit oxidised to a significant extent. Moving to real-world carbon steel immersion in sweet solutions, a scale comprising predominantly chukanovite is observed (using GIXRD and SEM) on the 1% Ni weld zone (WZ) surface of a pipeline weld-joint, but not on adjacent, distinct regions (heat affected zones (HAZ) and base metal (BM)). This selective scaling is suggested to be due to some initial corrosion of the weld-joint, which generates sufficient [Fe2+(aq)], and a macro-galvanic effect across the weld, i.e. WZ is cathodic to HAZ and BM. Further, to gain mechanistic insight into compositional changes during sweet corrosion scale growth, an electrochemical cell for in situ GIXRD (named E-cell) has been developed and commissioned. Diffraction patterns acquired using synchrotron radiation, from a pipeline steel surface, reveal the formation and temporal evolution of a multicomponent corrosion scale. Accompanying electrochemical data suggest that the scale is quite protective.

This thesis investigates the use of high-power lasers for synchrotron radiation sources with high brilliance, from the EUV to the hard X-ray spectral range. Hereby lasers accelerate electrons by laser-wakefield acceleration (LWFA), act as optical undulators, or both. Experimental evidence shows for the first time that LWFA electron bunches are shorter than the driving laser and have a length scale comparable to the plasma wavelength. Furthermore, a first proof of principle experiment demonstrates that LWFA electrons can be exploited to generate undulator radiation. Building upon these experimental findings, as well as extensive numerical simulations of Thomson scattering, the theoretical foundations of a novel interaction geometry for laser-matter interaction are developed. This new method is very general and when tailored towards relativistically moving targets not being limited by the focusability (Rayleigh length) of the laser, while it does not require a waveguide. In a theoretical investigation of Thomson scattering, the optical analogue of undulator radiation, the limits of Thomson sources in scaling towards higher peak brilliances are highlighted. This leads to a novel method for generating brilliant, highly tunable X-ray sources, which is highly energy efficient by circumventing the laser Rayleigh limit through a novel traveling-wave Thomson scattering (TWTS) geometry. This new method suggests increases in X-ray photon yields of 2-3 orders of magnitudes using existing lasers and a way towards efficient, optical undulators to drive a free-electron laser. The results presented here extend far beyond the scope of this work. The possibility to use lasers as particle accelerators, as well as optical undulators, leads to very compact and energy efficient synchrotron sources. The resulting monoenergetic radiation of high brilliance in a range from extreme ultraviolet (EUV) to hard X-ray radiation is of fundamental importance for basic research, medical applications, material and life sciences and is going to significantly contribute to a new generation of radiation sources and free-electron lasers (FELs).

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich in Experiment und Theorie mit Laser-Plasma beschleunigten Elektronen und optischen Undulatoren zur Erzeugung von brillianter Synchrotronstrahlung. Zum ersten Mal wird experimentell nachgewießen, dass laserbeschleunigte Elektronenpulse kürzer als 30 fs sind. Ferner werden solche Elektronenpulse erstmalig in einem Demonstrationsexperiment durch einen magnetischen Undulator als Synchrotronstrahlenquelle genutzt. Aufbauend auf diesen experimentellen Erkenntnissen, sowie umfangreichen numerischen Simulationen zur Thomsonstreuung, werden die theoretischen Grundlagen einer neuartigen Interaktionsgeometrie für Laser-Materie Wechselwirkungen entwickelt. Diese neue, in der Anwendbarkeit sehr allgemeine Methode basiert auf raum-zeitlicher Laserpulsformung durch nichtlineare Winkeldispersion wie diese durch VLS- (varied-line spacing) Gitter erzeugt werden kann und hat den Vorteil nicht durch die Fokussierbarkeit des Lasers (Rayleighlänge) begrenzt zu sein. Zusammen mit laserbeschleunigten Elektronen ermöglicht dieser traveling-wave Thomson scattering (TWTS) benannte Ansatz neuartige, nur auf optischer Technologie basierende Synchrotronstrahlenquellen mit Zentimeter bis Meter langen optische Undulatoren. Die hierbei mit existierenden Lasern erzielbaren Brillianzen übersteigen diese bestehender Thomsonquellen-Designs um 2-3 Größenordnungen. Die hier vorgestellten Ergebnisse weisen weit über die Grenzen der vorliegenden Arbeit hinaus. Die Möglichkeit Laser als Teilchenbeschleuniger und auch optischen Undulator zu verwenden führt zu bauartbedingt sehr kompakten und energieeffizienten Synchrotronstrahlungsquellen. Die hieraus resultierende monochromatische Strahlung hoher Brillianz in einem Wellenlängenbereich von extremen ultraviolett (EUV) zu harten Röntgenstrahlen ist für die Grundlagenforschung, medizinische Anwendungen, Material- und Lebenswissenschaften von fundamentaler Bedeutung und wird maßgeblich zu einer neuen Generation ultrakurzer Strahlungsquellen und freien Elektronenlasern (FELs) beitragen. / This thesis investigates the use of high-power lasers for synchrotron radiation sources with high brilliance, from the EUV to the hard X-ray spectral range. Hereby lasers accelerate electrons by laser-wakefield acceleration (LWFA), act as optical undulators, or both. Experimental evidence shows for the first time that LWFA electron bunches are shorter than the driving laser and have a length scale comparable to the plasma wavelength. Furthermore, a first proof of principle experiment demonstrates that LWFA electrons can be exploited to generate undulator radiation. Building upon these experimental findings, as well as extensive numerical simulations of Thomson scattering, the theoretical foundations of a novel interaction geometry for laser-matter interaction are developed. This new method is very general and when tailored towards relativistically moving targets not being limited by the focusability (Rayleigh length) of the laser, while it does not require a waveguide. In a theoretical investigation of Thomson scattering, the optical analogue of undulator radiation, the limits of Thomson sources in scaling towards higher peak brilliances are highlighted. This leads to a novel method for generating brilliant, highly tunable X-ray sources, which is highly energy efficient by circumventing the laser Rayleigh limit through a novel traveling-wave Thomson scattering (TWTS) geometry. This new method suggests increases in X-ray photon yields of 2-3 orders of magnitudes using existing lasers and a way towards efficient, optical undulators to drive a free-electron laser. The results presented here extend far beyond the scope of this work. The possibility to use lasers as particle accelerators, as well as optical undulators, leads to very compact and energy efficient synchrotron sources. The resulting monoenergetic radiation of high brilliance in a range from extreme ultraviolet (EUV) to hard X-ray radiation is of fundamental importance for basic research, medical applications, material and life sciences and is going to significantly contribute to a new generation of radiation sources and free-electron lasers (FELs).

This thesis investigates the use of high-power lasers for synchrotron radiation sources with high brilliance, from the EUV to the hard X-ray spectral range. Hereby lasers accelerate electrons by laser-wakefield acceleration (LWFA), act as optical undulators, or both. Experimental evidence shows for the first time that LWFA electron bunches are shorter than the driving laser and have a length scale comparable to the plasma wavelength. Furthermore, a first proof of principle experiment demonstrates that LWFA electrons can be exploited to generate undulator radiation. Building upon these experimental findings, as well as extensive numerical simulations of Thomson scattering, the theoretical foundations of a novel interaction geometry for laser-matter interaction are developed. This new method is very general and when tailored towards relativistically moving targets not being limited by the focusability (Rayleigh length) of the laser, while it does not require a waveguide. In a theoretical investigation of Thomson scattering, the optical analogue of undulator radiation, the limits of Thomson sources in scaling towards higher peak brilliances are highlighted. This leads to a novel method for generating brilliant, highly tunable X-ray sources, which is highly energy efficient by circumventing the laser Rayleigh limit through a novel traveling-wave Thomson scattering (TWTS) geometry. This new method suggests increases in X-ray photon yields of 2-3 orders of magnitudes using existing lasers and a way towards efficient, optical undulators to drive a free-electron laser. The results presented here extend far beyond the scope of this work. The possibility to use lasers as particle accelerators, as well as optical undulators, leads to very compact and energy efficient synchrotron sources. The resulting monoenergetic radiation of high brilliance in a range from extreme ultraviolet (EUV) to hard X-ray radiation is of fundamental importance for basic research, medical applications, material and life sciences and is going to significantly contribute to a new generation of radiation sources and free-electron lasers (FELs).

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich in Experiment und Theorie mit Laser-Plasma beschleunigten Elektronen und optischen Undulatoren zur Erzeugung von brillianter Synchrotronstrahlung. Zum ersten Mal wird experimentell nachgewießen, dass laserbeschleunigte Elektronenpulse kürzer als 30 fs sind. Ferner werden solche Elektronenpulse erstmalig in einem Demonstrationsexperiment durch einen magnetischen Undulator als Synchrotronstrahlenquelle genutzt. Aufbauend auf diesen experimentellen Erkenntnissen, sowie umfangreichen numerischen Simulationen zur Thomsonstreuung, werden die theoretischen Grundlagen einer neuartigen Interaktionsgeometrie für Laser-Materie Wechselwirkungen entwickelt. Diese neue, in der Anwendbarkeit sehr allgemeine Methode basiert auf raum-zeitlicher Laserpulsformung durch nichtlineare Winkeldispersion wie diese durch VLS- (varied-line spacing) Gitter erzeugt werden kann und hat den Vorteil nicht durch die Fokussierbarkeit des Lasers (Rayleighlänge) begrenzt zu sein. Zusammen mit laserbeschleunigten Elektronen ermöglicht dieser traveling-wave Thomson scattering (TWTS) benannte Ansatz neuartige, nur auf optischer Technologie basierende Synchrotronstrahlenquellen mit Zentimeter bis Meter langen optische Undulatoren. Die hierbei mit existierenden Lasern erzielbaren Brillianzen übersteigen diese bestehender Thomsonquellen-Designs um 2-3 Größenordnungen. Die hier vorgestellten Ergebnisse weisen weit über die Grenzen der vorliegenden Arbeit hinaus. Die Möglichkeit Laser als Teilchenbeschleuniger und auch optischen Undulator zu verwenden führt zu bauartbedingt sehr kompakten und energieeffizienten Synchrotronstrahlungsquellen. Die hieraus resultierende monochromatische Strahlung hoher Brillianz in einem Wellenlängenbereich von extremen ultraviolett (EUV) zu harten Röntgenstrahlen ist für die Grundlagenforschung, medizinische Anwendungen, Material- und Lebenswissenschaften von fundamentaler Bedeutung und wird maßgeblich zu einer neuen Generation ultrakurzer Strahlungsquellen und freien Elektronenlasern (FELs) beitragen. / This thesis investigates the use of high-power lasers for synchrotron radiation sources with high brilliance, from the EUV to the hard X-ray spectral range. Hereby lasers accelerate electrons by laser-wakefield acceleration (LWFA), act as optical undulators, or both. Experimental evidence shows for the first time that LWFA electron bunches are shorter than the driving laser and have a length scale comparable to the plasma wavelength. Furthermore, a first proof of principle experiment demonstrates that LWFA electrons can be exploited to generate undulator radiation. Building upon these experimental findings, as well as extensive numerical simulations of Thomson scattering, the theoretical foundations of a novel interaction geometry for laser-matter interaction are developed. This new method is very general and when tailored towards relativistically moving targets not being limited by the focusability (Rayleigh length) of the laser, while it does not require a waveguide. In a theoretical investigation of Thomson scattering, the optical analogue of undulator radiation, the limits of Thomson sources in scaling towards higher peak brilliances are highlighted. This leads to a novel method for generating brilliant, highly tunable X-ray sources, which is highly energy efficient by circumventing the laser Rayleigh limit through a novel traveling-wave Thomson scattering (TWTS) geometry. This new method suggests increases in X-ray photon yields of 2-3 orders of magnitudes using existing lasers and a way towards efficient, optical undulators to drive a free-electron laser. The results presented here extend far beyond the scope of this work. The possibility to use lasers as particle accelerators, as well as optical undulators, leads to very compact and energy efficient synchrotron sources. The resulting monoenergetic radiation of high brilliance in a range from extreme ultraviolet (EUV) to hard X-ray radiation is of fundamental importance for basic research, medical applications, material and life sciences and is going to significantly contribute to a new generation of radiation sources and free-electron lasers (FELs).