Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Section 25(6) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 guarantees legally secure tenure to persons whose tenure of land is insecure as a result of past racially discriminatory laws and practices. The Extension of Security of Tenure Act 62 of 1997 (ESTA) and the Land Reform (Labour Tenants) Act 3 of 1996 (LTA) were enacted to give effect to section 25(6), read with section 25(9) of the Constitution, with the aim to improve and strengthen tenure security in rural areas, including farmland. However, the general opinion amongst scholars is that these efforts to strengthen tenure security have generally failed to ensure legally secure tenure on farmland. To this effect, the Draft tenure security policy and Draft Land Tenure Security Bill (2010) were formulated to introduce new measures to improve tenure security on farmland. This gives a clear indication that eighteen years after the government embarked on an all-encompassing land reform programme, its intended goals have not yet been achieved, resulting in the continued challenges faced by farm dwellers. The thesis discusses the inherent challenges associated with tenure security on white-owned commercial farmland, with specific reference to government‟s obligation to improve tenure security; the nature of farm dwellers‟ rights; and the shortcomings of the existing policy and legislative measures. A historical overview explains the effects of the apartheid land holding system that underpins the need for tenure reform, while an analysis of constitutional and international law sets out the guiding principles on tenure security. An analysis of the applicable policy and legislative measures establishes the causes of continued tenure insecurity on farmland, which include shortcomings in the main legislative measures; failure by the legislature to translate policy into legislation; misinterpretation and misapplication of legislation by the courts; and lack of effective implementation. The thesis considers the impact of the Draft tenure security policy and the Bill in light of the challenges facing farm dwellers and concludes that tenure security in relation to farmland remains insecure and government still falls short of the appropriate solutions to address the tenure security challenges on farmland. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Artikel 25(6) van die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika 1996 waarborg sekerheid van verblyfregte vir persone wie se verblyfregte regsonseker is as gevolg van ras-diskriminerende wette en praktyke van die verlede. Die Wet op die Uitbreiding van Sekerheid van Verblyfreg 62 van 1997 (ESTA) en die Wet op Grondhervorming (Huurarbeiders) 3 van 1996 (LTA) is gepromulgeer om gevolg te gee aan artikel 25(6), saamgelees met artikel 25(9), van die Grondwet, wat daarop gemik is om die sekerheid van verblyfregte in landelike gebiede te verbeter en te versterk. Die algemene siening onder geleerdes is egter dat hierdie pogings om sekerheid van bestaande verblyfregte te versterk oor die algemeen ten opsigte van verblyfregte op landbougrond gefaal het. In verband hiermee is die Konsep beleid op sekerheid van verblyfregte (Draft tenure security policy) en die Konsep Wetsontwerp op die Sekerheid van Verblyfregte in Grond (Draft Land Tenure Security Bill) (2010) geformuleer om nuwe maatreëls voor te stel om sekerheid van verblyfregte ten opsigte van landbougrond te bewerkstellig. Hierdie ontwikkelings gee ‟n aanduiding dat die staat ná ‟n omvattende grondhervormingsprogram van agtien jaar nie die beoogde doelwitte bereik het nie en dat plaasbewoners steeds uitdagings in die gesig staar. Hierdie tesis bespreek die inherente uitdagings wat geassosioseer word met regsonsekere verblyfregte ten opsigte van kommersiële landbougrond, hoofsaaklik van wit grondeienaars, met spesifieke verwysing na die staat se plig om regsekerheid te versterk; die aard van plaasbewoners se regte; en die tekortkominge van die bestaande beleids- en wetgewende maatreëls. Die behoefte aan hervorming word beklemtoon met verwysing na ‟n historiese oorsig wat die uitwerking van die apartheid-grondbeheerstelsel verduidelik, terwyl ‟n analise van grondwetlike en internasionale reg die beginsels met betrekking tot die sekerheid van verblyfregte uiteensit. ‟n Analise van die toepaslike beleids- en wetgewende maatreëls dui op die oorsake van voortdurende onsekerheid van verblyfregte in landbougrond, wat die volgende insluit: tekortkominge in die primêre wetgewende maatreëls; versuim deur die wetgewer om beleid in wetgewing om te skakel; foutiewe uitleg of toepassing van wetgewing deur die howe; en ‟n gebrek aan die effektiewe uitvoering van wetgewing. Die tesis oorweeg die impak van die Konsep beleid op sekerheid van verblyfregte (Draft tenure security policy) en die Konsep Wetsontwerp in die lig van die uitdagings waarmee plaasbewoners steeds te kampe het, en kom tot die gevolgtrekking dat verblyfregte ten opsigte van landbougrond steeds regsonseker is en dat die staat steeds versuim om geskikte oplossings vir die uitdagings daar te stel.

It is claimed that low-income people in Dhaka city do not have the financial ability to enjoy adecent housing environment. There is a clear lack of knowledge on how low-income people,drawing upon both their available income together and support from formal financial institutions,would be able to afford housing. It is commonly considered a fact that their access to formalfinancial means is largely hindered by their poor financial status, along with the absence of anyform of land tenure security. The case of this study demonstrates, on the contrary, the adequatefinancial ability of the urban poor when it comes to meeting rent and payments for other necessaryservices. This study therefore primarily responds to the critical issue of whether the government isunaware of informal housing practices, or is simply ignorant of low-income housing provision.In this study, perspectives on change are analyzed in order to comprehend the obstacles andchallenges embedded within the housing organizations of Dhaka city. Within the local governanceparadigm, the concepts of deliberative dialogue and partnership are explored with the aim toreveal both the resources rooted in ‘informal’ low-income housing practices, and the resources atstake for the ‘formal’ housing gatekeepers. Different land tenure security options are explored inorder to understand their compatibility with the informal nature of low-income housing. Thetheory of social business is critically reviewed, and used to examine whether low-incomeaffordable housing could be seen as a product resulting from partnerships between vested actors,for whom the low-income community could be considered to be both a beneficiary and a partner.This study suggests that outside the boundary of ‘formal’ housing, there is an unexplored andfunctional ‘informal’ housing market where de facto owners purchase ‘business tenure security’from the slum lords, while de facto tenants buy ‘house rental tenure security’ in exchange forregular rental payments. Within this informality, an innovative financial organization (the JhilparCooperative) has emerged as a creative platform for business investment. This study reveals thatJhilpar’s inhabitants pay more than 30 percent of their monthly income for housing. As anabsolute value, this is more than what is being paid by middle-class – and even many high-income– people. The slum inhabitants also pay more for a limited supply of basic services, such aselectricity.This study concludes that the formal housing gatekeepers lack a complete knowledge of‘informality’ – a notion reflected in, for example, the actual financial ability of the urban poor; thestrength and potentials of systematic community-based cooperative business; and housing relocationdecisions (employment-housing nexus). This fundamental lack of knowledge precludesthe housing gatekeepers from taking the right decisions to achieve affordable low-incomehousing. These deficiencies have led to low-income housing projects that have barely benefitedthe urban poor, benefiting other income groups instead. Low-income housing projects utilizingland title provision, sites and services schemes, and relocation to other places (amongst otherstrategies) disregard the nature, strength, and potentials of housing ‘informality’ in the slums inthe most pronounced manner. This identified knowledge gap also rules out private and publichousing gatekeepers employing their resources as enablers or providers. To improve this impassewith regard to affordable low-income housing, this study advocates a ‘social business model forlow-income housing’ as the most effective option for the Jhilpar community, wherebypartnerships would be built on an ‘investment’ mindset, through a shift away from conventional‘give away’ practices. / QC 20120221

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Magister Philosophiae (Land and Agrarian Studies) - MPhil(LAS) / This was an original case study that aimed to locate South African post-apartheid rural land social movements within existing theoretical approaches. The land social movements organize around land rights and access for landless people and for those whose land rights are weak or threatened. The study analyzed conditions contributing to the emergence of land social movements in the post-apartheid South Africa and struggle methods they employ, using a case study of the Tenure Security Coordinating Committee in KwaZulu-Natal. / South Africa

This was an original case study that aimed to locate South African post-apartheid rural land social movements within existing theoretical approaches. The land social movements organize around land rights and access for landless people and for those whose land rights are weak or threatened. The study analyzed conditions contributing to the emergence of land social movements in the post-apartheid South Africa and struggle methods they employ, using a case study of the Tenure Security Coordinating Committee in KwaZulu-Natal.

This was an original case study that aimed to locate South African post-apartheid rural land social movements within existing theoretical approaches. The land social movements organize around land rights and access for landless people and for those whose land rights are weak or threatened. The study analyzed conditions contributing to the emergence of land social movements in the post-apartheid South Africa and struggle methods they employ, using a case study of the Tenure Security Coordinating Committee in KwaZulu-Natal.

Thesis (LLM )-- University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis discusses the efficacy of procedures involving communal participation in the management of land by communal property associations, and how this contributes to the promotion of security of tenure as envisaged by the South African Land Reform programme. The Communal Property Associations Act 28 of 1996 (CPA Act) is aimed at regulating communal living arrangements to create security of tenure for its respective landholders. However, the general opinion of commentators in the land reform sector has continued to be that communal property institutions are ineffective and generally fail. Many assert that problems experienced are symptoms of a wider weakness relating to the institutional design of the juristic person, its regulation and the support it receives. To determine the strength of this assertion, the concept and conditions of security of tenure in South African law, and the obstacles hampering it, are investigated. Security of tenure is especially important as it provides a foundation from which land holders can exercise their rights productively. This is followed by an overview of the existing legal mechanisms for communal living arrangements that are similar to the arrangements catered for in the CPA Act. One of these arrangements, namely the Sectional Titles Act is used to compare mechanisms similar to the establishment and management procedures in the CPA Act. The main conclusion regarding establishment procedures is that many of the provisions of the CPA Act are not being implemented properly. While some institutional problems exist and must be addressed, negotiation with and guidance by the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform are necessary to overcome such problems. An inadequate establishment process will only lead to problems and conflict in the management phase that could hamper security of tenure. Communal property associations are managed by an organisation structure comprising of a juristic person, a committee and the community. The thesis shows that committee members often lack the necessary training to fulfil their duties adequately. The CPA Act also allow communal property associations too much discretion in allocating powers and functions of the committee that can lead to paralysis in decision-making processes. The Department Rural Development and Land Reform has extensive powers to monitor and intervene in matters of the association if problems exist, but in practice such measures are not resorted to. These problems create dysfunction in many communal property associations. While the CPA Act can provide security of tenure for communities, the most significant obstacle is the lack of support from the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform in implementing the provisions of the CPA Act. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis handel oor die doeltreffendheid van die prosedures rondom die deelname van gemeenskappe aan die bestuur van grond in gemeenskaplike eiendomsverenigings, en hoe dit bydra tot die bevordering van die onaantasbaarheid van grondregte, soos beoog deur die Suid-Afrikaanse grondhervormingsprogram. Die Communal Property Associations Act 28 of 1996 (CPA Wet) het ten doel om gemeenskaplike bewoning van grond te reguleer ten einde om sekerheid vir houers van grond in die hand te werk. Die heersende mening van kommentatore in die grondhervormingsektor is nietemin nog steeds dat gemeenskaplike eiendomsinstellings ondoeltreffend is, en oor die algemeen misluk. Verskeie kommentatore doen aan die hand dat die heersende probleme simptome is van onderliggende tekortkominge in die wyse waarop die regspersoon saamgestel word en hoe dit gereguleer en ondersteun word. Ten einde hierdie opvatting te deurgrond, word daar in hierdie tesis gekyk na die omstandighede waaronder onaantasbaarheid van grondregte bewerkstellig kan word in die Suid-Afrikaanse reg, en na die struikelblokke wat bestaan om heirdie doel te bereik. Onaantasbaarheid van grondregte is belangrik, veral omdat dit die basis is waarop houers van grond in staat gestel word om hul regte produktief uit te oefen. Hierna volg ‘n oorsig van die bestaande regsmeganismes vir gemeenskaplike bewoning van grond, wat soortgelyk is aan dié van die CPA Wet. Een sodanige opset is die Deeltitelswet, wat gebruik word om soortgelyke meganismes vir die totstandkoming van en die bestuursprosedures van die CPA Wet te vergelyk. Die gevolgtrekking met betrekking tot totstandkomingsprosedures is dat die bepalings van die CPA Wet nie behoorlik in werking gestel is nie. Benewens die institusionele probleme wat aangespreek moet word, is onderhandeling met en leiding deur die Departement van Landelike Ontwikkeling en Grondhervorming nodig, om bestaande struikelblokke uit die weg te ruim. ‘n Ontoereikende totstandkomingsproses sal slegs lei tot verdere probleme en geskille in die latere bestuur van die skema wanneer die skema bestuur moet word. Dit werk onsekerheid m.b.t. die grondregte in die hand. Die bestuurstruktuur van gemeenskaplike eiendomsverenigings bestaan uit ‘n regspersoon, ‘n komitee en die gemeenskap. Die tesis dui aan dat komiteelede dikwels nie voldoende opgelei is om hul funksies behoorlik te vervul nie. Die CPA Wet maak ook voorsiening vir te veel diskresionêre begoegdhede in die akte van oprigting en die bepalings omtrent die funksies van die komitee, wat die besluitnemingsproses kan lamlê. Die Departement van Plaaslike Ontwikkeling en Grondhervorming het verreikende magte m.b.t monitering en intervensie in die sake van die verenigings, waar probleme bestaan. In die praktyk word hierdie bevoegdhede egter nie aangewend soos beoog nie. Die probleme versoorsaak dat gemeenkskaplike eiendomsverenigings nie na behore funksioneer nie. Die wetsbepalings kan onaantasbaarheid van grondregte vir gemeenskappe in die hand werk, maar die grootste struikelblok is die behoorlike implementering van die wetsbepalings.

L’incertitude pèse sur les ménages ruraux des pays en développement. Cette thèse vise d’une part à mieux comprendre quels sont les conséquences de cette vulnérabilité sur les comportements et d’autre part à analyser la mise en oeuvre et l’impact des stratégies de gestion de risque, qu’elles soient internes ou externes au ménage. Le premier chapitre se concentre sur l’effet de l’exposition au risque foncier sur le comportement d’épargne en Angola. Il établit que les ménages non dotés de documents de propriété ne sont pas à même de cumuler une épargne de précaution. Ce comportement d’auto-Couverture ne se manifeste que lors du cumul de plusieurs risques. Le second chapitre se focalise sur la prise de décision à l’intérieur du ménage pour le choix de stratégies de diversification. Il s’agit d’étudier l’allocation du temps de travail des femmes au Sénégal entre le travail domestique et les activités génératrices de revenus. Un modèle de type sphères séparées avec un transfert entre conjoints est validé. Le faible rôle des incitations financières et l’importance du pouvoir de négociation sont démontrés. Le dernier chapitre analyse l’impact sur la vulnérabilité des ménages d’une intervention extérieure au travers d’un programme visant à l’accès aux services énergétiques. Son impact est mesuré sur la nutrition des enfants. Les résultats démontrent un effet positif et progressif de la présence de l’infrastructure sur la nutrition de long terme. L’intensité de fonctionnement réduit la malnutrition de court terme. Un effet de diffusion est également établi. Ces trois chapitres permettent de montrer l’incapacité des ménages à mettre en place des stratégies de lutte contre la vulnérabilité de façon autonome. Elles prouvent ensuite la nécessité de développer l’accès aux marchés dans les zones rurales. Enfin, le rôle de l’intervention extérieure pour fournir des instruments de gestion aux ménages est souligné. / Uncertainty hangs over rural households in developing countries. This thesis aims first to better understand the consequences of vulnerability on behavior and also to analyze the implementationand impact of risk management strategies, internal or external to the household. The first chapter concentrates on the effect of exposure to tenure insecurity in Angola on saving behavior. It states that households without document are not able to accumulate precautionary saving. This behavior of self-Coverage only occurs with cumulated risks. The second chapter focuses on the decision-Making within the household for the choice of diversification strategies. The allocation of women working time in Senegal between domestic work and income generating activities is studied. A model of separate spheres with a transfer between spouses is validated. The low incidence of financial incentives and the importance of bargaining power are demonstrated. The last chapter analyzes the impact of external intervention on household vulnerability through a program which aims to develop access to energy services. Its impact is estimated on the nutrition of children. The results show a positive and progressive effect of the presence of the infrastructure on long- erm nutrition. The intensity of use reduces the short-Term malnutrition. A diffusion effect is also established. These three chapters allow to stress the inability of households to develop independent strategies against the vulnerability. Then they make out the need to develop market access in rural areas. Finally,the role of external intervention to provide management tools to households is underlined

The last decade has witnessed an exponential interest in land investments across numerous industries in the developed countries. Africa has been particularly targeted for investments, increasingly for biofuel production. Though land investments can boost local economies when realized in an equitable manner, many reports also point to large-scale displacements and loss of land for local landowners. There remain empirical unclarities on the subject, and theoretical and analytical frameworks are underdeveloped in explaining the conditions and factors that determine outcomes.   This thesis is exploring the effects of land investments on land tenure security through the lens of credible commitment and neo-patrimonial theory, with a focus on biofuel production in Tanzania as the chosen qualitative case study. The analysis is based on two specific jatropha investments in Tanzania: Sun Biofuels and Diligent Ltd.   The research contribution of the thesis is in merging two theoretical approaches, CCT and Neo-patrimonialism, and applying it to a new research area of land investments in order to establish an understanding of their effects on local land tenure security.

Rural communities have engaged in the governance and management of forest resources by developing institutions that prevent overexploitation of common-pool resources and maintain the basis of their livelihoods. Effective community forestry relies on several conditions, including secure tenure rights, an enabling regulatory framework, strong governance, and sufficient knowledge. Worldwide, customary community forests have gained legal recognition in the wake of tenure reforms with the expectation that this formalization would enhance tenure security. In Thailand, the Royal Forest Department (RFD) began in 2000 to legally recognize community forests and share formal rights and responsibilities with communities through a national co-management program. This program was further expanded to support the development of community forest networks. The RFD could not provide extension services to approximately 10,000 community forests and aimed to improve the information sharing among communities. The objective of this dissertation was to investigate whether both program elements, i.e. forest tenure formalization and community forest networking, could provide better conditions for community forests. It was of particular interest whether the formalization could enhance the security of tenure rights, which could affect the willingness of communities to invest in forest conservation. The intervention to enhance inter-communal networks is of particular relevance for the international community due to its uniqueness. A diverse set of methodological approaches was required to address each objective. A quasi- experimental design was used to analyze the effect of community forest management on deforestation and the impact of the subsequent formalization based on statistical matching and panel data analyses. Comparative case studies were investigated subsequently to better understand the relationships between formalization, tenure security, forest-related conflicts, and deforestation. Social network modeling was used to analyze how networking organizations affected the flow of information between communities. The findings indicated that community in Thailand have effectively protected their forests even before receiving legal recognition. The formalization procedure has improved the relationship between communities and RFD officials but it has not enhanced their ability to prevent forest encroachment as support from the State has been insufficient in the case of tenure conflicts. In the absence of state-led extension services, established networking organizations enabled communities to provide mutual support as indicated by the enhanced inter-communal flow of information on a provincial level. However, networking organizations still depended on external funding and support during their initial establishment. The co-sharing of forest tenure rights and responsibilities between communities and the RFD might have helped to build trust and acceptance. This study has, however, confirmed that formalization can only provide limited benefits to forest-managing communities if they remain unprotected from forest encroachment because their formal tenure rights are not being enforced. Thus, communities might become disillusioned if their rights are not protected against more powerful actors. The community forest networks have the potential to increase the political influence of these communities while also enhancing their capacity to share and develop new knowledge. However, communities require more financial resources as their responsibilities increase while their ability to generate financial returns remains legally limited. Thus, the regulatory framework can be changed to balance communal rights and responsibilities or expanded by developing financing mechanisms to fund community-based conservation activities, such as forest patrols and fire prevention measures.:Acknowledgements Summary List of Figures List of Tables 1 Enabling effective community forestry 1.1 Potential outcomes of community forestry 1.2 Conditions for effective community forestry 1.3 Policy interventions in Asia’s community forests 2 Justification and objectives 2.1 Impact of formalization on tenure security and local institutions 2.2 Impact of registration on forest loss 2.3 Impact of network administration organization on information-sharing 3 The history of community-based forest management models in Thailand 3.1 Expansion of state control over forestland 3.2 Forest Village Programs 3.3 Community forestry discourse 3.4 Community Forest Program 3.5 Conclusions 4 Designing impact evaluations for policy interventions 4.1 Quantitative impact evaluation 4.2 Qualitative impact evaluation 4.3 Social network analysis 5 The impact of community forest formalization on tenure security and forest co- management in Thailand 5.1 Abstract 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Background 5.4 Methodology 5.5 Results 5.6 Discussion 5.7 Conclusion 6 Community-based forest management moderates impact of deforestation pressure regardless of formalization in Thailand 6.1 Abstract 6.2 Introduction 6.3 Methodology 6.4 Results 6.5 Discussion 6.6 Conclusion 7 Network administrators facilitate information sharing among communal forest organizations in Thailand 7.1 Abstract 7.2 Introduction 7.3 Methodology 7.4 Results 7.5 Discussion 7.6 Conclusion 8 Synthesis, implications and outlook 8.1 Synthesis of key results 8.2 Policy implications 8.3 Future research 8.4 Critical reflections on research methodology Supplementary material for Chapter 6 Supplementary material for Chapter 7 References Supplementary material