Por ser um semicondutor de elevado número atômico, elevada densidade de massa e largo gap de energia, o brometo de tálio (TlBr) é um material promissor para a detecção da radiação à temperatura ambiente. Entretanto, existem poucos trabalhos relacionados ao estudo deste material sob forma de filme fino policristalino para produção em grandes áreas como desejado para aplicações médicas. Neste trabalho, as técnicas de spray pyrolysis e evaporação térmica foram avaliadas como métodos alternativos para a deposição de filmes de TlBr policristalinos. Ambas as técnicas apresentam relativo baixo custo e podem facilmente ser expandidas para grandes áreas. O objetivos deste trabalho é o estudo da influência das principais condições de crescimento nas propriedades (estruturais, ópticas e elétricas) finais dos filmes de TlBr. Para os filmes produzidos por spray pyrolysis água mili-Q foi utilizada como solvente. A solução (0,10 g de TlBr dissolvidos em 100 g de água) foi agitada à temperatura de 70ºC. Cada deposição foi realizado mantendo os substratos (1cm x 1cm) à temperatura de 100ºC, com um fluxo de nitrogênio (N2) de 8 1/min e um fluxo de solução de aproximadamente 1/90 (ml/s). A distância bico de spray-substrato utilizada foi de 19 cm. Os filmes de TlBr evaporados foram crescidos pela evaporação térmica do material a partir de um cadinho de tungstênio. Um sistema de aquecimento dos substratos foi implantado e permitiu a variação da temperatura destes durante a deposição desde a temperatura ambiente até 200ºC. A separação substrato-superfície de evaporação, h, e o número de deposições por filme, n, também foram variados no intervalo de 3 a 9 cm e 1 a 4, respectivamente. A estrutura dos filmes foi investigada por Difração de Raio-x, a morfologia por Microscopia Eletrônica de Verredura e a composição através da Espectroscopia de Dispersão de Energia (EDS). Experimentos ópticos de transmitância em função do comprimento de ondas foram realizados para estimar o gap ótico dos filmes.As resistividades foram medidas a partir de experimentos de corrente em função da voltagem aplicada fluorescente (20 watts). Por fim, algumas amostras selecionadas foram expostas aos raios-X na faixa de diagnóstico mamográfico. As melhores propriedades foram obtidas para os filmes crescidos por evaporação térmica. A maior compactação e o maior gap óptico foram encontrados para os filmes produzidos a partir de h= 9 cm, os quais garantiram a maior sensibilidade para estes filmes quando expostos aos raios-X. Para os filmes produzidos pela deposição sequencial de várias camadas, a estrutura colunar dos filmes foi mantida para camadas superiores e resultados semelhantes para todas as amostras foram obtidos em relação ao gap óptico e à resistividade elétrica. Além disso, a sensibilidade a partir da utilização de raio-X na faixa mamográfica foi quadruplicada para o filme mais espesso. O aumento da temperatura do substrato resultou na maior compactação e homogeneidade no recobrimento do substrato. Entretanto, uma perda significativa de material durante a evaporação determinou filmes menos espessos em relação aos depósitos à temperatura ambiente. Variações cristalográficas e morfológicas foram obtidas entre os filmes depositados a diferentes temperaturas. Maiores valores gap foram obtidos para 150 e 200ºC. A caracterização elétrica dos filmes depositados a diferentes temperaturas foi limitada, neste trabalho, pela baixa pureza do pó utilizado para produção destes filmes. / Due to its high atomic number, high mass density and intrinsic band gap, thallium bromide (TlBr) is a promising semiconductor for room temperature operation for ionizing radiation detection. However, there are few works related to the study of this material in the polycrystalline thin film form for production in large areas (~ 40 x 40 cm2 ), as desired by medical applications. In this work, spray pyrolysis and thermal evaporation were used as alternative methods for the deposition of polycrystalline TlBr films. Both techniques present relative low cost and can be expanded for large areas. The aim of this work is to investigate the influence of the main growth conditions on the final structural, optical and electrical TlBr films properties. Films produced by spray pyrolysis used mili-Q water as solvent. The solution (0,10g of TlBr dissolved in 100g of water) was stirred at 70o C. Each deposition was performed maintaining the substrates (1cm2 ) at 100o C, the nitrogen rate at 8l/min and the solution flow at 1/90 ml/s approximately. The nozzle-spray to substrate distance was 19 cm. Evaporated TlBr films were grown by resistive thermal evaporation of purified material from a tungsten crucible. The substrate temperature was evaluated from room temperature to 200°C. The separation between evaporation source and substrates, h, and the number of depositions, n, were also varied from 3 cm up to 9 cm and from 1 up to 4, respectively. The structure of the crystals was investigated by X-ray Diffraction, the morphology by Scanning Electron Microscopy and the composition by Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy. Optical experiments of absorbance as a function of wavelength were performed to estimate the optical gap of the TlBr films. Electrical resistivities were measured using current versus voltage experiments. The dark current was compared to the current under illumination with a fluorescent lamp (20 watts). Finally, some selected samples were exposed to X-ray in the range of mammography diagnosis. The best properties were obtained for films produced by resistive thermal evaporation. This technique allowed the production of films with thickness of approximately 28 µm, for a unique deposition of 12 minutes. However, bromine has lower vapor pressure than the thallium, what leads to a Br loss of about 10% in the composition of evaporated films. The smallest distribution of cracks and the largest optical gap were obtained for films produced at the lowest deposition rates. This leads also to a higher increase of the ratio between current under irradiation and in the dark, when the films were exposed to X-rays. For films produced at room temperature using sequential depositions, the columnar structure was kept for the superior layers and similar results for all samples were obtained in relation to optical gap and electrical resistivity. Moreover, for the thicker film, an increase of a factor 4 was observed for the ratio between current under irradiation using X-rays in the mammography range in relation to the dark. The higher substrate temperature leads to significant material loss during the evaporation and determined less thick films in relation to the ones deposited at room temperature. Structural and morphological variations were verified for films deposited at different temperatures. Larger gap values were found for 150 and 200ºC. For the electrical characterization of the films deposited at different temperatures an original powder with higher purity would be necessary. Moreover, due to the significant difference between bromine and thallium vapor pressures, better results would probably be obtained by a change to the hot-wall evaporation technique.

Este trabalho versou sobre a obtenção de partículas nanoestruturadas de ZnO pela técnica de evaporação térmica a partir de zinco metálico. Basicamente, a síntese ocorria em um reator de quatzo colocado em um forno tipo mufla, onde o zinco metálico reagia com uma atmosfera oxidante, proporcionada pela injeção de ar comprimido. Inicialmente, o forno era aquecido a temperaturas que variaram de 850 a 1050°C. Posteriormente, a amostra de zinco metálico era inserida na zona de aquecimento no interior do tubo, em quantidade de 2,5g, 5g, 10g, 20g e 30g. A injeção de argônio (99,99% de pureza), para o transporte das partículas de ZnO para fora da zona de reação, ocorria com um fluxo de 1 a 5L/min. O tempo de reação foi controlado e as regiões de ocorrência das reações variadas. Após o término das reações, o forno era resfriado à temperatura ambiente para a realização da coleta das amostras. A pressão utilizada durante as reação foi a pressão atmosférica. O material produzido foi analisado para a caracterização da estrutura cristalina (por difração de raios-x), morfologia (por microscopia eletrônica de varredura e transmissão, com auxílio do software Image Tool para a estimativa de tamanho de partícula) e área superficial (método BET). O band gap do ZnO foi determinado por análise de transmitância, refletância e absorbância, utilizando um espectrofotômetro com acessório de refletância difusa, através de medidas de refletividade de infravermelho difuso no pó óxido de zinco. Os dados de absorção foram calculados em função de Kubelka-Munk. A atividade fotocatalítica foi avaliada através do processo de degradação de uma solução de alaranjado de metila em um reator fotoquímico de iluminação UVA, com sua descoloração sendo observada através da espectroscopia UV-Vis. As partículas nanoestruturadas de ZnO produzidas tiveram suas características influenciadas pelos parâmetros de síntese. A morfologia variou desde formas aciculares a tetrápodes. As dimensões variaram de 1130nm a 17nm, conforme a dimensão (comprimento, largura) considerada. A avaliação da atividade fotocatalítica indicou um comportamento bastante similar ao ZnO comercial utilizado como padrão, o que pode ser explicado pela área superficial e valores de band gap. No entanto, não foi possível encontrar a mesma correlação em outros resultados, sendo então suposto uma fotocorrosão, como fenômeno de degradação da atividade fotocatalítica de ZnO, a exemplo do relatado na literatura por outros autores. / This work investigates nanostructured ZnO particles obtained by the technique of thermal evaporation from zinc metal. Basically, the synthesis occurred in a quartz reactor placed in a muffle furnace, where the zinc metal reacted with an oxidizing atmosphere, provided by the injection of compressed air. Initially, the furnace was heated to temperatures varying from 850 to 1050 º C. Subsequently, the sample of zinc metal was inserted into the heating zone inside the tube, in an amount of 2.5 g, 5g, 10g, 20g and 30g. The injection of argon (99,99% purity) for the transport of ZnO particles out of the reaction zone, occurred with a flow of 1 to 5 L/min. The reaction time was controlled and the regions of occurrence of the reactions varied. Upon completion of the reaction, the furnace was cooled to room temperature to perform the sample collection. The pressure used during the reaction was the atmospheric pressure. The material produced was analyzed to characterize the crystal structure (by x-ray diffraction), morphology (by scanning electron microscopy and transmission, with the help of the software Image Tool for estimation of particle size) and surface area (method BET). The band gap of ZnO was determined by transmittance, reflectance and absorbance analysis using a spectrophotometer with diffuse reflectance accessory, by reflectivity measurements of infrared diffuse in the zinc oxide powder. The absorption data were calculated according to Kubelka-Munk. The photocatalytic activity was evaluated through the degradation process of a solution of methyl orange in a photochemical reactor of UVA light, with its discoloration observed by UV-Visible spectroscopy. The particles of ZnO nanostructured produced had characteristics influenced by the parameters of synthesis. The morphology varied from needle-like forms to tetrapods. The size varied from 1130 nm to 17 nm, depending on the dimension (length, width) considered. The evaluation of photocatalytic activity showed a pattern quite similar to commercial ZnO used as standard, which can be explained by surface area and band gap values. However, we could not find the same correlation in other results, and then assumed a photocorrosion, as a phenomenon of degradation of the photocatalytic activity of ZnO, like the reported in the literature by other authors.

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Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:31:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2009-11-16Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:01:19Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 savu_r_dr_bauru.pdf: 10688901 bytes, checksum: 4c1846c73d88b2e598b43e7a14ea1b7c (MD5) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / A presente pesquisa teve como principal objetivo a obtenção de estruturas nanométricas de óxido de índio, óxido de estanho e óxido de zinco por evaporação térmica e síntese hidrotérmica e a construção e teste de sensores de gases e de fotodetectores de ultravioleta baseados nessas nanoestruturas. Foram realizados estudos da influência dos parâmetros experimentais das duas rotas de síntese usadas sobre as morfologias e as propriedades das estruturas. Para a obtenção das camadas nanoestruturadas por evaporação térmica foi especialmente construído um forno tubular que permitiu o controle da temperatura de deposição independente da temperatura de evaporação e da distância entre a fonte de evaporação e o substrato. Esses parâmetros, pouco explorados nas pesquisas reportadas na literatura, exerceram uma grande influência sobre a morfologia e as propriedades dos nanofios obtidos. O equipamento permitiu ainda um controle preciso da composição da atmosfera e da pressão de síntese. Na síntese química em solução, a construção de um reator hidrotérmico permitiu o estudo da influência da taxa de resfriamento sobre as dimensões, cristalinidade, morfologia e propriedades das nanoestruturas. Esse estudo, o primeiro do gênero na literatura, ressaltou a importância no controle deste parâmetro para sintetizar estruturas com propriedades melhoradas. As demais variáveis estudadas foram: a concentração das soluções, as camadas catalisadoras, a temperatura e o tempo de síntese. Foram testadas duas estratégias para a obtenção dos filmes nanoestruturados: spin-coating de suspensões de nanoestruturas sobre substratos de silício oxidado ou o crescimento das mesmas, durante a síntese, sobre substratos com camadas catalisadoras de zinco. Os nanofios e as camadas funcionais foram caracterizados por Difração de Raios-X (DRX), Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura... / The subject of this thesis covers the synthesis and growth of indium, tin and zinc oxide nanostructures by thermal evaporation and hydrothermal synthesis and the fabrication and testing of gas sensors and ultraviolet photodetectors based on these nanosized structures. For both chemical and physical routes, the influence of processing conditions over the morphology, dimensions and electrical properties of the nanowires was investigated. In order to obtain nanostructured layers by thermal evaporation a tubular furnace was specifically builti, allowed the control of the source-substrate distance and the deposition temperature independently of the evaporation one. These parameters, slightly explored in the literature, granted a big influence over the nanowires morphology and properties. Moreover, the equipment permitted the control of deposition atmosphere and pressure. The design and assembly of a hydrothermal reactor allowed studying the influence of the cooling rate over the dimension, morphology, cristallinity and, consequently, the properties of the nanostructures. This study highlighted the importance of controlling this particular parameter in the hydrothermal process, yielding nanostructured materials with enhanced properties. Variables such as solution concentration, synthesis temperature and time, surfanctants and precursors were also explored in the hydrothermal process. In order to obtain nanostructured thin films using the chemical bath deposition, two processing techniques were employed: spin-coating of powder suspensions over oxidized silicon substrates and nanostructured anisotropic growth directly from solution using zinc coated substrates. The nanowires and the functional nanostructured layers were characterized by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE - SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Direct conversion of solar energy, which is the most powerful and unlimited one among the renewable energy sources / into the electrical energy by the photovoltaic devices, is a promising way of meeting the energy needs of future. Thin film semiconductor materials show great promise for the production of efficient, low-cost solar cell devices. Recently advanced research on thin film photovoltaics in all aspects, has attracted intense attention. Thin film semiconductors for the photovoltaic applications are deposited in large areas by different methods. In this study, deposition and characterization of CuIn1-x GaxSe2 ( CIGS ) semiconductor thin films by thermal evaporation and e-beam evaporation methods were investigated. Material properties and deposition parameters of the thin films are aimed to be optimized for solar cell applications. Structural properties of the deposited CIGS thin films were examined through X-ray diffraction and Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis. The temperature dependent electrical conductivity, Hall effect and photoconductivity of these samples have been measured between 100 and 400 K. For the optical characterization of CIGS thin films, the transmission measurements have been carried out in the wavelength region of 325-900 nm. The changes in the structural, electrical and optical properties of samples through post-depositional annealing effect were also analyzed.

Thin film solar cells of Copper Indium Telluride and Cadmium Sulfide junctions were fabricated on plain ITO glass slides and also on those coated with intrinsic Tin Oxide. CdS was deposited through chemical bath deposition and CIT by electrodeposition. Both compounds were subjected to annealing at temperatures between 350°C and 500°C which produced more uniform film thicknesses and larger grain sizes. The CIT/ CdS junction was characterized after performing XRD and spectral absorption of individual compounds. Studies were also made on CdS / CdTe solar cells with respect to effect of annealing temperatures on open circuit voltages. NP acid etch, the most important process to make the surface of CdTe tellurium rich, was also studied in terms of open circuit voltages. Thermally evaporated CdS of four different thicknesses was deposited on Tin Oxide coated ITO and inferences were drawn as to what thickness of CdS yields better results.

Electrical and structural properties of Bismuth thin films were studied simultaneously. Electrical properties of the Bismuth thin films have been characterized by measuring temperature dependent conductivity and Hall effect. Structural analysis were carried out by X-ray diffraction technique and using a room temperature Atomic Force Microscope (RT-AFM).

In the present study, the effect of S and Se substitution on structural, electrical and optical properties of AgGa(Se2-xSx) thin films has been investigated. AgGa(Se0.5S0.5 )2 thin films were prepared by using the thermal evaporation method. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis has revealed that the transformation from amorphous to polycrystalline structure took place at about 450 oC. The detailed information about the stoichometry and the segregation mechanisms of the constituent elements in the structure has been obtained by performing both energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXA) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements. AgGaSe2 thin films were deposited by using both electron-beam (e-beam) and sputtering techniques. In e-beam evaporated thin films, the effect of annealing on the structural and morphological properties of the deposited films has been studied by means of XRD, XPS, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and EDXA measurements. Structural analysis has shown that samples annealed between 300 and 600 oC were in polycrystalline structure with co-existance of Ag, Ga2Se3, GaSe, and AgGaSe2. The variation of surface morphology, chemical composition and bonding nature of constituent elements on post-annealing has been determined by EDXA and XPS analyses. AgGaSe2 thin films were also prepared by using sputtering technique. XRD measurements have shown that the mono-phase AgGaSe2 structure is formed at annealing temperature of 600 oC. The crystal-field and spin-orbit splitting levels were resolved. These levels around 2.03 and 2.30 eV were also detected from the photospectral response measurements. Thin films of Ag-Ga-S (AGS) compound were prepared by using AgGaS2 single crystalline powder and deposition of the excess silver (Ag) intralayer with double source thermal evaporation method. As a consequence of systematic optimization of thickness of Ag layer, Ag(Ga,S) with the stoichiometry of AgGa5S8 and AgGaS2 were obtained and systematic study to obtain structural, electrical and optical properties was carried out.

Resumo: A presente pesquisa teve como principal objetivo a obtenção de estruturas nanométricas de óxido de índio, óxido de estanho e óxido de zinco por evaporação térmica e síntese hidrotérmica e a construção e teste de sensores de gases e de fotodetectores de ultravioleta baseados nessas nanoestruturas. Foram realizados estudos da influência dos parâmetros experimentais das duas rotas de síntese usadas sobre as morfologias e as propriedades das estruturas. Para a obtenção das camadas nanoestruturadas por evaporação térmica foi especialmente construído um forno tubular que permitiu o controle da temperatura de deposição independente da temperatura de evaporação e da distância entre a fonte de evaporação e o substrato. Esses parâmetros, pouco explorados nas pesquisas reportadas na literatura, exerceram uma grande influência sobre a morfologia e as propriedades dos nanofios obtidos. O equipamento permitiu ainda um controle preciso da composição da atmosfera e da pressão de síntese. Na síntese química em solução, a construção de um reator hidrotérmico permitiu o estudo da influência da taxa de resfriamento sobre as dimensões, cristalinidade, morfologia e propriedades das nanoestruturas. Esse estudo, o primeiro do gênero na literatura, ressaltou a importância no controle deste parâmetro para sintetizar estruturas com propriedades melhoradas. As demais variáveis estudadas foram: a concentração das soluções, as camadas catalisadoras, a temperatura e o tempo de síntese. Foram testadas duas estratégias para a obtenção dos filmes nanoestruturados: spin-coating de suspensões de nanoestruturas sobre substratos de silício oxidado ou o crescimento das mesmas, durante a síntese, sobre substratos com camadas catalisadoras de zinco. Os nanofios e as camadas funcionais foram caracterizados por Difração de Raios-X (DRX), Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The subject of this thesis covers the synthesis and growth of indium, tin and zinc oxide nanostructures by thermal evaporation and hydrothermal synthesis and the fabrication and testing of gas sensors and ultraviolet photodetectors based on these nanosized structures. For both chemical and physical routes, the influence of processing conditions over the morphology, dimensions and electrical properties of the nanowires was investigated. In order to obtain nanostructured layers by thermal evaporation a tubular furnace was specifically builti, allowed the control of the source-substrate distance and the deposition temperature independently of the evaporation one. These parameters, slightly explored in the literature, granted a big influence over the nanowires morphology and properties. Moreover, the equipment permitted the control of deposition atmosphere and pressure. The design and assembly of a hydrothermal reactor allowed studying the influence of the cooling rate over the dimension, morphology, cristallinity and, consequently, the properties of the nanostructures. This study highlighted the importance of controlling this particular parameter in the hydrothermal process, yielding nanostructured materials with enhanced properties. Variables such as solution concentration, synthesis temperature and time, surfanctants and precursors were also explored in the hydrothermal process. In order to obtain nanostructured thin films using the chemical bath deposition, two processing techniques were employed: spin-coating of powder suspensions over oxidized silicon substrates and nanostructured anisotropic growth directly from solution using zinc coated substrates. The nanowires and the functional nanostructured layers were characterized by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE - SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Orientador: Maria Aparecida Zaghete Bertochi / Coorientador: Elson Longo / Banca: Antonio Ricardo Zanatta / Banca: Mônica Alonso Cotta / Banca: Talita Mazon Anselmo / Banca: Sidney José Lima Ribeiro / O Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Tecnologia de Materiais, PosMat, tem caráter institucional e integra as atividades de pesquisa em materiais de diversos campi da Unesp / Doutor

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