Loss of biodiversity is a major environmental issue in Australia. In response the Commonwealth Government has developed a national list of threatened species and prepared recovery plans under the provisions of the Commonwealth Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBCA). However, knowledge on the appropriateness and effectiveness of those conservation and management schemes is limited. The aim of the thesis was to conduct an evaluation of recovery planning to assess its appropriateness as a conservation and management instrument, and investigate how legislative, institutional and organisational factors influence its implementation. Four research questions were addressed: 1) How does recovery planning operate in regard to legislative, jurisdictional and institutional aspects? 2) Do recovery plans comply with legislative requirements and coherent conservation planning? 3) What management factors have most influence on implementation of recovery plans at state level? and 4) What modifications could be made to the management system to improve implementation of recovery plans? The major approaches considered in this study were policy evaluation and systems analysis. Both approaches were incorporated in a framework of the thesis to construct a conceptualisation of the threatened species management system as a model. This allowed examining its structure, key elements and dynamics, and evaluation of its performance and effectiveness. Methods comprised interviews, content analysis of program documentation, qualitative and quantitative analysis of recovery plans, experts’ workshops, and systems analysis and modelling. The major set of quantitative data came from a database which incorporated content attributes of 236 recovery plans. Taking into account the Australian legislative requirements for preparing recovery plans, key content attributes were selected for assessing the degree of compliance. Internal consistency of plans was also assessed as a complementary measure of coherent management planning. Measures of internal consistency were: consistency between gaps of scientific information versus prescribed actions calling for research; consistency between major threatening processes versus prescription of threat abatement actions; and consistency between recovery objectives versus performance criteria for measuring achievement of objectives. Another component of the thesis was the construction of a model of the management system of threatened species. This theoretical model was conceptualised from opinions of experts and stakeholders occupying key roles in threatened species management. The model incorporated social aspects of management such as institutional and organisational factors influencing planning and the implementation of recovery plans. The model was built using a Bayesian belief network to assess the most influential components (issues, recovery strategies, and management requirements) on the likely outcomes. Expert opinions also assisted to identify gaps in the management system and formulate new management strategies. Finally, modelling allowed assessing different management scenarios and identified the key components that would improve recovery planning. Major findings of the investigation revealed that: 1) Although the three levels of government in Australia (Commonwealth, state/territory and local) are involved in recovery planning, it is the states/territories that have the most active role in preparing and operating recovery plans. State and territory-based legislation, policy and conservation strategies shape the form in which recovery planning is performed nationwide, as they are responsible for implementing 89% of national plans; 2) Overall compliance of plans with legislative requirements was adequate; although improvement is required in establishing a monitoring and evaluation framework. Overall, internal consistency of plans was also adequate in addressing threats and formulating research for knowledge gaps; but consistency was poor regarding the response to some threatening processes and the establishment of recovery criteria; 3) According to experts/stakeholders, the most influential issues relevant to the implementation of recovery plans are: coordination across Commonwealth, state and territory agencies, inconsistency of strategies and programs across jurisdictions, addressing management of threatened species on private land, incorporation of science into recovery planning, prioritising schemes for conservation action, and funding for the implementation of plans; 4) The recovery planning strategy may be improved by establishing mandatory monitoring and review reports; creating a national forum on threatened species; designing an appropriate insurance regime for volunteers; and establishing a national management information system.

Loss of biodiversity is a major environmental issue in Australia. In response the Commonwealth Government has developed a national list of threatened species and prepared recovery plans under the provisions of the Commonwealth Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBCA). However, knowledge on the appropriateness and effectiveness of those conservation and management schemes is limited. The aim of the thesis was to conduct an evaluation of recovery planning to assess its appropriateness as a conservation and management instrument, and investigate how legislative, institutional and organisational factors influence its implementation. Four research questions were addressed: 1) How does recovery planning operate in regard to legislative, jurisdictional and institutional aspects? 2) Do recovery plans comply with legislative requirements and coherent conservation planning? 3) What management factors have most influence on implementation of recovery plans at state level? and 4) What modifications could be made to the management system to improve implementation of recovery plans? The major approaches considered in this study were policy evaluation and systems analysis. Both approaches were incorporated in a framework of the thesis to construct a conceptualisation of the threatened species management system as a model. This allowed examining its structure, key elements and dynamics, and evaluation of its performance and effectiveness. Methods comprised interviews, content analysis of program documentation, qualitative and quantitative analysis of recovery plans, experts’ workshops, and systems analysis and modelling. The major set of quantitative data came from a database which incorporated content attributes of 236 recovery plans. Taking into account the Australian legislative requirements for preparing recovery plans, key content attributes were selected for assessing the degree of compliance. Internal consistency of plans was also assessed as a complementary measure of coherent management planning. Measures of internal consistency were: consistency between gaps of scientific information versus prescribed actions calling for research; consistency between major threatening processes versus prescription of threat abatement actions; and consistency between recovery objectives versus performance criteria for measuring achievement of objectives. Another component of the thesis was the construction of a model of the management system of threatened species. This theoretical model was conceptualised from opinions of experts and stakeholders occupying key roles in threatened species management. The model incorporated social aspects of management such as institutional and organisational factors influencing planning and the implementation of recovery plans. The model was built using a Bayesian belief network to assess the most influential components (issues, recovery strategies, and management requirements) on the likely outcomes. Expert opinions also assisted to identify gaps in the management system and formulate new management strategies. Finally, modelling allowed assessing different management scenarios and identified the key components that would improve recovery planning. Major findings of the investigation revealed that: 1) Although the three levels of government in Australia (Commonwealth, state/territory and local) are involved in recovery planning, it is the states/territories that have the most active role in preparing and operating recovery plans. State and territory-based legislation, policy and conservation strategies shape the form in which recovery planning is performed nationwide, as they are responsible for implementing 89% of national plans; 2) Overall compliance of plans with legislative requirements was adequate; although improvement is required in establishing a monitoring and evaluation framework. Overall, internal consistency of plans was also adequate in addressing threats and formulating research for knowledge gaps; but consistency was poor regarding the response to some threatening processes and the establishment of recovery criteria; 3) According to experts/stakeholders, the most influential issues relevant to the implementation of recovery plans are: coordination across Commonwealth, state and territory agencies, inconsistency of strategies and programs across jurisdictions, addressing management of threatened species on private land, incorporation of science into recovery planning, prioritising schemes for conservation action, and funding for the implementation of plans; 4) The recovery planning strategy may be improved by establishing mandatory monitoring and review reports; creating a national forum on threatened species; designing an appropriate insurance regime for volunteers; and establishing a national management information system.

Area of Occupancy (AO) is a frequently used indicator to assess and inform designation of conservation status to wildlife species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The applicability of the current grid-based AO measurement on freshwater organisms has been questioned due to the restricted dimensionality of freshwater habitats. I investigated the extent to which AO influenced conservation status for freshwater taxa at a national level in Canada. I then used distribution data of 20 imperiled freshwater fish species of southwestern Ontario to (1) demonstrate biases produced by grid-based AO and (2) develop a biologically relevant AO index. My results showed grid-based AOs were sensitive to spatial scale, grid cell positioning, and number of records, and were subject to inconsistent decision making. Use of the biologically relevant AO changed conservation status for four freshwater fish species and may have important implications on the subsequent conservation practices.

Area of Occupancy (AO) is a frequently used indicator to assess and inform designation of conservation status to wildlife species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The applicability of the current grid-based AO measurement on freshwater organisms has been questioned due to the restricted dimensionality of freshwater habitats. I investigated the extent to which AO influenced conservation status for freshwater taxa at a national level in Canada. I then used distribution data of 20 imperiled freshwater fish species of southwestern Ontario to (1) demonstrate biases produced by grid-based AO and (2) develop a biologically relevant AO index. My results showed grid-based AOs were sensitive to spatial scale, grid cell positioning, and number of records, and were subject to inconsistent decision making. Use of the biologically relevant AO changed conservation status for four freshwater fish species and may have important implications on the subsequent conservation practices.

As regiões tropicais têm sofrido drásticas modificações na paisagem ao longo do tempo. No Brasil, o bioma Cerrado é considerado um dos mais vulneráveis devido à crescente destruição ocasionada pela ação antrópica, sendo o bioma mais ameaçado do mundo. Restam apenas 20% da cobertura original do Cerrado em todo o país e somente 2,2% estão inseridos em áreas protegidas. Com essa crítica situação de conservação, além da rápida destruição de seus hábitats naturais e também por possuir uma elevada riqueza biológica, o Cerrado foi incluso entre os 25 hotspots mundiais. A redução excessiva das áreas nativas pode provocar a extinção de muitas espécies de aves, principalmente espécies especialistas de áreas campestres. Em aves, a seleção de hábitat é entendida como um processo hierárquico de respostas comportamentais que influenciam a sobrevivência e a aptidão dos indivíduos. A diminuição de sítios adequados para a nidificação no ambiente pode ser um fator crítico que determina a extinção local de muitas espécies de aves. Outro aspecto de extrema importância, é a compreensão de fatores relacionados à história de vida das espécies. Descrições detalhadas sobre a biologia reprodutiva da avifauna são de fundamental importância, ainda mais que muitas das espécies de aves neotropicais ainda não possuem descrições sobre informações básicas de suas histórias de vidas. Diante disso, visamos no capítulo I descrever a biologia reprodutiva de Alecturus tricolor e Sporophila pileata, dois Passeriformes dos quais muito pouco se sabe sobre aspectos fundamentais das suas histórias de vida. No capítulo II visamos entender como algumas aves de fitofisionomias campestres de cerrado selecionam o microhábitat para a nidificação e como essas escolhas podem influenciar no sucesso reprodutivo dessas espécies / Tropical regions have undergone drastic changes in the landscape over time. In Brazil, the Cerrado is considered one of the most vulnerable biomes due to increased destruction caused by human action; it is the most threatened biome in the world. Only 20% of the original cover of the Cerrado remains across the country and only 2.2% is included in protected areas. With this critical conservation situation, the rapid destruction of their natural habitats along with its high biological richness, the Cerrado has been included among the 25 global \"hotspots\". Excessive reduction of native areas can cause the extinction of many bird species, principally species specific to grassland areas. Among birds, the habitat selection is understood as a hierarchical process of behavioral responses that influence the survival and fitness of individuals. The reduction of suitable nesting sites in the environment may be a critical factor that determines the local extinction of many species of birds. Another very important aspect is the understanding of factors related to the life history of the species. Detailed descriptions of the reproductive biology of birds are of fundamental importance, even more so since many of neotropical birds still do not have descriptions of basic information of their life histories. Therefore, we aim in chapter I to describe the reproductive biology of tricolor Alecturus tricolor and Sporophila pileata, two Passeriformes of which very little is known about key aspects of their life histories. In Chapter II we aim to understand how some birds of grassland physiognomies of the cerrado select the microhabitats for nesting and how these choices can influence the reproductive success of these species

The amazon ecosystems have been compromised by historical forms of occupation and land-use causing habitat loss and forest fragmentation. These anthropogenic disturbances associated to climate changes have direct consequences on the distribution of species and their in situ persistence. Currently, 76 of 14.003 plants taxonomically identified in the Amazon have been listed by the Brasilian Ministry of the Environment as threatened species, though we believe this number to be much bigger in the reality. Among them, Amazon-nut (Bertholletia excelsa), a native tree species, national and internationally known for its cultural, social-economic and nutritional value has been classified as vulnerable. For developping of public policy turned to its management and conservation is fundamental to know the percentage of habitat available, as well as the nature and scale of threats to this environments. Species distribution modelling is an increasingly important tool for predicting habitat suitability and for understanding species environmental tolerances, but has been rarely used in Brazil, especially for Amazonian species. This study aimed to model the potential distribution of B. excelsa in the Amazon biome and to know the factors that control its distribution. To enhance our analysis, case studies were carried out with stakeholders aiming to know their perceptions about the main threats to the species and potential solutions.This research project was based on two hypotheses: (i) There is a suitable habitat to Amazon-nut which require different objectives for conservation and planting; (ii) If the local people are aware of the species vulnerability, they are able to point out the factors that cause this condition. In the chapter 1, habitat was investigated using MAXENT algoritm. We collected 3,325 Amazon-nut records and organized one hundred-and-two environmental variables into climatic, edaphic and geophysical categories at a spatial resolution of 30 arcs-second (~1km). Multi-colinearity between variables was dealt with multivariate statistics associated to expert\'s knowledge, and presence data biased with the spatial filtering. The best model was selected adopting quantitative metrics and visual examination. The most importante biophysic variables we identified were: altitude (m), coarse soil fragments (<2mm) and clay (%). Finaly, the best model indicated 2.3 million km2 i.e., 32% of the Amazon basin has potential for B. excelsa to grow. In the chapter 2, the factors that affect Amazon-nut conservation and planting were discussed with local communities, public managers and researchers, totalyzing 203 participants. Focus groups, individual interviews and questionaire techniques were used to gather information. Data were categorized and the perceptions among stakeholders compared using quali-quantitative analyses. We found that there are currently 36 problems responsible for the species vulnerability and 72% of them belong to environmental and political contexts. Deforestation was the main problem mentioned, followed by fruit depreciation, control failures and lack of organization in the communities. For three groups of stakeholders, the main solutions were related to political context. The results obtained in this study contribute to increase ecological knowledge on the species, to demonstrate the complexity of sustainable use in the Amazon and to guide decisions makers in the selection of priority areas for conservation and potential planting. / Os ecossistemas amazônicos vêm sendo impactados ao longo dos anos por diversos processos de uso e ocupação do território, os quais têm resultado em perdas de habitats e na fragmentação da paisagem nativa. Essas perturbações antrópicas, associadas às mudanças climáticas, têm consequências diretas sobre a distribuição e persistência das espécies in situ. Das 14.003 plantas da Amazônia reconhecidas taxonomicamente, somente 76 estão atualmente listadas pelo Ministério do Meio Ambiente brasileiro como espécies ameaçadas, embora acredita-se que esse número seja muito maior. Entre elas, a Castanha-da-Amazônia (Bertholletia excelsa), uma espécie de árvore nativa, reconhecida nacional e internacionalmente pela sua importância cultural, socioeconômica e nutricional, encontra-se classificada como vulnerável. Para nortear políticas públicas na conservação e no plantio dessa espécie, um profundo entendimento sobre o habitat disponível para ela, bem como a origem e escala das ameaças à esse ambiente, é necessário. A modelagem de distribuição de espécies é uma ferramenta que oferece predições espaciais robustas sobre a adequabilidade de habitat e tolerância das espécies, mas tem sido pouco utilizada no Brasil, sobretudo para espécies Amazônicas. Nesse contexto, esse estudo objetivou modelar a distribuição potencial da B. excelsa no bioma Amazônia, bem como conhecer os fatores que controlam sua distribuição. Para aprofundar essas análises, estudos de caso foram realizados com o objetivo de conhecer a percepção de atores sociais envolvidos com a espécie sobre as principais ameaças e potenciais soluções. Essa tese baseou-se em duas hipóteses: (i) existem áreas com maior adequabilidade para a ocorrência da Castanha-da-Amazônia que demandam diferentes objetivos, para conservação e para o plantio; (ii) se a população local é conciente da vulnerabilidade da espécie, ela pode indicar os fatores que geram essa condição. No capítulo 1, o habitat foi investigado por meio de simulações usando o algoritmo MAXENT. Um total de 3.325 ocorrências e 102 variáveis ambientais foram obtidas, e posteriormente organizadas por categorias climática, edáfica e geofísica. A resolução espacial escolhida foi de 30 arc-segundo (~1km). A multi-colinearidade entre as variáveis foi reduzida por meio da estatística multivariada associada ao conhecimento de especialistas, e as tendências nas ocorrência foram tratadas através da filtragem espacial. O melhor modelo foi selecionado usando métricas quantitativas e examinações visuais. As variáveis biofísicas mais importantes encontradas foram altitude (m), solos com fragmentos grosseiros (<2mm) e argila (%). Por fim, o modelo indicou que 2.3 million km2 i.e., 32% da região amazônica é apropriado para B. excelsa crescer. No capítulo 2, os fatores que afetam a conservação e o plantio da espécie foram discutidos com comunidades, gestores e pesquisadores locais, totalizando 203 participantes. As técnicas de discussão em grupo focal, entrevistas individuais e questionários foram utilizadas para a coleta das informações. Os dados foram categorizados e as opiniões entre os diferentes grupos comparadas utilizando análises quali-quantitativas. Concluiu-se que atualmente existem 36 problemas responsáveis pela vulnerabilidade da espécie, dos quais 72% encontram-se no contexto ambiental e político. O desmatamento foi a principal forçante apontada, seguida pela desvalorização do fruto, falhas na fiscalização e falta de organização nas comunidades. Para os três grupos, as principais soluções foram voltadas para o contexto político. Os resultados obtidos nesse estudo contribuiem para aumentar o conhecimento ecológico da espécie, para demostrar a complexidade do uso sustentável na Amazônia, e orientar tomadores de decisão na seleção de áreas prioritárias para conservação e potenciais para o plantio.

The amazon ecosystems have been compromised by historical forms of occupation and land-use causing habitat loss and forest fragmentation. These anthropogenic disturbances associated to climate changes have direct consequences on the distribution of species and their in situ persistence. Currently, 76 of 14.003 plants taxonomically identified in the Amazon have been listed by the Brasilian Ministry of the Environment as threatened species, though we believe this number to be much bigger in the reality. Among them, Amazon-nut (Bertholletia excelsa), a native tree species, national and internationally known for its cultural, social-economic and nutritional value has been classified as vulnerable. For developping of public policy turned to its management and conservation is fundamental to know the percentage of habitat available, as well as the nature and scale of threats to this environments. Species distribution modelling is an increasingly important tool for predicting habitat suitability and for understanding species environmental tolerances, but has been rarely used in Brazil, especially for Amazonian species. This study aimed to model the potential distribution of B. excelsa in the Amazon biome and to know the factors that control its distribution. To enhance our analysis, case studies were carried out with stakeholders aiming to know their perceptions about the main threats to the species and potential solutions.This research project was based on two hypotheses: (i) There is a suitable habitat to Amazon-nut which require different objectives for conservation and planting; (ii) If the local people are aware of the species vulnerability, they are able to point out the factors that cause this condition. In the chapter 1, habitat was investigated using MAXENT algoritm. We collected 3,325 Amazon-nut records and organized one hundred-and-two environmental variables into climatic, edaphic and geophysical categories at a spatial resolution of 30 arcs-second (~1km). Multi-colinearity between variables was dealt with multivariate statistics associated to expert\'s knowledge, and presence data biased with the spatial filtering. The best model was selected adopting quantitative metrics and visual examination. The most importante biophysic variables we identified were: altitude (m), coarse soil fragments (<2mm) and clay (%). Finaly, the best model indicated 2.3 million km2 i.e., 32% of the Amazon basin has potential for B. excelsa to grow. In the chapter 2, the factors that affect Amazon-nut conservation and planting were discussed with local communities, public managers and researchers, totalyzing 203 participants. Focus groups, individual interviews and questionaire techniques were used to gather information. Data were categorized and the perceptions among stakeholders compared using quali-quantitative analyses. We found that there are currently 36 problems responsible for the species vulnerability and 72% of them belong to environmental and political contexts. Deforestation was the main problem mentioned, followed by fruit depreciation, control failures and lack of organization in the communities. For three groups of stakeholders, the main solutions were related to political context. The results obtained in this study contribute to increase ecological knowledge on the species, to demonstrate the complexity of sustainable use in the Amazon and to guide decisions makers in the selection of priority areas for conservation and potential planting. / Os ecossistemas amazônicos vêm sendo impactados ao longo dos anos por diversos processos de uso e ocupação do território, os quais têm resultado em perdas de habitats e na fragmentação da paisagem nativa. Essas perturbações antrópicas, associadas às mudanças climáticas, têm consequências diretas sobre a distribuição e persistência das espécies in situ. Das 14.003 plantas da Amazônia reconhecidas taxonomicamente, somente 76 estão atualmente listadas pelo Ministério do Meio Ambiente brasileiro como espécies ameaçadas, embora acredita-se que esse número seja muito maior. Entre elas, a Castanha-da-Amazônia (Bertholletia excelsa), uma espécie de árvore nativa, reconhecida nacional e internacionalmente pela sua importância cultural, socioeconômica e nutricional, encontra-se classificada como vulnerável. Para nortear políticas públicas na conservação e no plantio dessa espécie, um profundo entendimento sobre o habitat disponível para ela, bem como a origem e escala das ameaças à esse ambiente, é necessário. A modelagem de distribuição de espécies é uma ferramenta que oferece predições espaciais robustas sobre a adequabilidade de habitat e tolerância das espécies, mas tem sido pouco utilizada no Brasil, sobretudo para espécies Amazônicas. Nesse contexto, esse estudo objetivou modelar a distribuição potencial da B. excelsa no bioma Amazônia, bem como conhecer os fatores que controlam sua distribuição. Para aprofundar essas análises, estudos de caso foram realizados com o objetivo de conhecer a percepção de atores sociais envolvidos com a espécie sobre as principais ameaças e potenciais soluções. Essa tese baseou-se em duas hipóteses: (i) existem áreas com maior adequabilidade para a ocorrência da Castanha-da-Amazônia que demandam diferentes objetivos, para conservação e para o plantio; (ii) se a população local é conciente da vulnerabilidade da espécie, ela pode indicar os fatores que geram essa condição. No capítulo 1, o habitat foi investigado por meio de simulações usando o algoritmo MAXENT. Um total de 3.325 ocorrências e 102 variáveis ambientais foram obtidas, e posteriormente organizadas por categorias climática, edáfica e geofísica. A resolução espacial escolhida foi de 30 arc-segundo (~1km). A multi-colinearidade entre as variáveis foi reduzida por meio da estatística multivariada associada ao conhecimento de especialistas, e as tendências nas ocorrência foram tratadas através da filtragem espacial. O melhor modelo foi selecionado usando métricas quantitativas e examinações visuais. As variáveis biofísicas mais importantes encontradas foram altitude (m), solos com fragmentos grosseiros (<2mm) e argila (%). Por fim, o modelo indicou que 2.3 million km2 i.e., 32% da região amazônica é apropriado para B. excelsa crescer. No capítulo 2, os fatores que afetam a conservação e o plantio da espécie foram discutidos com comunidades, gestores e pesquisadores locais, totalizando 203 participantes. As técnicas de discussão em grupo focal, entrevistas individuais e questionários foram utilizadas para a coleta das informações. Os dados foram categorizados e as opiniões entre os diferentes grupos comparadas utilizando análises quali-quantitativas. Concluiu-se que atualmente existem 36 problemas responsáveis pela vulnerabilidade da espécie, dos quais 72% encontram-se no contexto ambiental e político. O desmatamento foi a principal forçante apontada, seguida pela desvalorização do fruto, falhas na fiscalização e falta de organização nas comunidades. Para os três grupos, as principais soluções foram voltadas para o contexto político. Os resultados obtidos nesse estudo contribuiem para aumentar o conhecimento ecológico da espécie, para demostrar a complexidade do uso sustentável na Amazônia, e orientar tomadores de decisão na seleção de áreas prioritárias para conservação e potenciais para o plantio.

There were no studies found in the literature that primarily focused on threatened harm as type of maltreatment. This study utilized Florida's child welfare administrative data to explore threatened harm as a type of maltreatment, particularly as a predictor of recurrence of maltreatment within six and 12 months for children who had a verified report of maltreatment in FY2005-2006. Threatened harm was examined in three ways; when it was reported as the only maltreatment, the initial maltreatment, and in situations where there was a prior report. The most prevalent acts of threatened harm were examined separately. It was examined as a predictor of recurrence of any maltreatment and also as a predictor of recurrence of a different type of maltreatment. The results of bivariate and multivariate Cox regression analysis indicated that children who experienced threatened harm were at increased odds for recurrence of maltreatment overall. The odds were found to be greater within 12 months, for children who had a prior report and for children who experienced a substance related threatened harm. Children with a prior report were also found to be more likely to experience recurrence of a different type of maltreatment. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Humans have indirectly and directly contributed to the extinction of over 500 species within the past 500 years, a rate far higher than we have seen in the past. The high extinction rate and the fact that 18% of vertebrates may become extinct within the next century have pushed Earth into a biodiversity crisis. Understanding what makes species more at risk of extinction is needed to protect Earth’s biodiversity. Generally, it is expected that predators have greater extinction risk than omnivores and herbivores because predators are larger in body size, depend on other animal species for food, need large home ranges, and have fewer individuals within their populations. However, no study to date has actually tested the assumption that predators have the highest extinction risk. This question is important to understand because diet is associated with the ecological role a species plays in an ecosystem. We compared the extinction risk of species with different diets to determine species in which trophic level are proportionately more at risk of extinction. We classified each species’ diet, trophic level (i.e.,predator, omnivore, and herbivore), body size, habitat, geographic region, system, and associated threats. We focused our analyses on all mammals, birds, and reptiles assessed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. We then compared the expected and observed proportions of threatened species within each trophic level and diet group at global, system, habitat, and regional scales. We found that predators, except scavengers, fish-eating birds, and obligate mammal and bird eaters, were not more threatened than expected. On the other hand, herbivores consistently had greater proportions of threatened species than expected. Specifically within herbivores, fruit, grass, and leaf-eating species had high proportions of threatened species. When we separated large-bodied and small-bodied species, we found that most large-bodied species, regardless of their trophic level, had greater proportions of threatened species. When we looked at the regions and habitats where species were more often threatened, we found that herbivores were highly threatened in south and Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and Oceania. In addition, herbivores were highly threatened in tropical forests, marine coasts, and sometimes grasslands. Overall, terrestrial herbivores and marine predatory birds were highly threatened. We found that these patterns may have resulted from overexploitation, habitat alteration, and pollution targeting herbivores and sometimes omnivores. These findings suggest that we should shift conservation focus from predators to include herbivores. The most threatened species, tropical herbivores, scavengers, and mammal, bird, and fish eaters should be of highest conservation priority.

Recent census data have shown that the number of Breton speakers in Lower Brittany has continued to drop despite revitalization efforts. A problem minority languages face is struggling to maintain a place in the lives of the people who have adopted the dominant language. In this study, I assess the current problems faced by the Breton language today by examining a few select problems. First, I highlight the lack of situations in which speakers can use Breton. Even children attending immersion programs often do not live in a Breton-speaking household, nor do they have settings outside the school where they can practice the language. Secondly, I consider the ideological place of Breton in the minds of speakers. Many people feel that while Breton is important to their heritage, they do not need to actively speak it in order to associate with a Breton identity. Related to this is the opinion of many people that Breton is an outdated language with no future ahead of it, as revealed by recent research (Broudic 2009, Jones1998, Timm 2001). Finally, the creation of a new, standardized Breton known as neo-Breton adds to the problem of finding a place for the language; older speakers who use traditional Breton are marginalized, while it is the young speakers using neo- Breton. I use current census data as well as personal research conducted in Brittany in July 2010 to supplement my assessment of the current Breton situation. While progress has been slow, Breton is gaining a stronger presence in society. / text