La fibrose kystique (FK) est une maladie qui affecte principalement les systèmes respiratoires, digestifs et reproducteurs et rend les personnes atteintes plus susceptibles aux surinfections bronchiques et aux exacerbations pulmonaires. Le dosage initial et les ajustements de dose des antibiotiques sont difficiles en raison des altérations pharmacocinétique (PK), la grande variabilité PK et l'émergence de résistance aux antibiotiques dans cette population. En guise d’introduction, le premier chapitre de ce mémoire présente la pathologie de la fibrose kystique, des principes de base en pharmacologie et en modélisation compartimentale. Le deuxième chapitre présente une revue systématique de la littérature sur les modèles PK de population des antibiotiques développés dans la population FK adulte. Cette étude a mis en évidence les facteurs démographiques et cliniques ayant le plus d'impact sur la PK des antibiotiques en FK. Par exemple, le poids corporel maigre était la covariable la plus fréquemment utilisée pour estimer les paramètres PK des β-lactamines. Le troisième chapitre montre comment les modèles PK de population peuvent être utilisés pour proposer des stratégies de dosage alternatives aux cliniciens. Les résultats ont montré que la normalisation des doses de tobramycine par la taille (à une dose de 3,4 mg/cm) permet d'obtenir des concentrations maximales et minimales de tobramycine adéquates pour un patient médian. Le quatrième chapitre présente une évaluation méthodologique de l’impact du temps de prélèvement à 8h post-dose sur la performance prédictive de modèles PK de population pour la tobramycine. Il a été démontré que les paramètres PK du deuxième compartiment sont biaisés lorsqu’estimés en utilisant des concentrations simulées issues de temps de prélèvement divergents du modèle analysé. Le cinquième chapitre illustre le développement et l’évaluation d'un nomogramme de doses initiales pour la tobramycine basé sur la taille. Les doses dérivées du nomogramme entraînent une réduction significative de la variabilité des concentrations maximales prédites par rapport à ce qui est observé en clinique, ce qui pourrait potentiellement améliorer les issues cliniques en FK. Ce mémoire a donc démontré l'importance et la pertinence de la modélisation et des simulations dans un contexte clinique afin d’améliorer la prise en charge des patients atteints de FK. / Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a progressive, hereditary disease that primarily affects the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems and makes patients more likely to develop bronchial bacterial infections, and subsequently experience acute pulmonary exacerbations. Effective antibiotic use is in part responsible for the decreased respiratory burden observed over the past decades. However, initial dosing and dose adjustments of antibiotics, particularly of tobramycin, is challenging due to altered pharmacokinetics (PK), high PK variability, and emergence of antibiotic resistance. The first chapter of this dissertation presents the pathology of cystic fibrosis, basic principles in pharmacology and compartmental modeling. The second chapter presents a systematic literature review of population PK models of antibiotics developed for adult patients with CF. This study highlighted the demographic and clinical factors most impacting the PK of prescribed antibiotics in this population. For example, lean body weight was the most frequently used covariate for estimating PK parameters of β-lactams. The third chapter of this memoire shows how previously developed population PK models can be leveraged to propose alternative dosing strategies to clinicians. It was found that dose normalization of tobramycin using height rather than body weight at a 3.4 mg/cm dose resulted in tobramycin maximum and residual concentrations within the target range found in published guidelines for a median patient. The fourth chapter presents a methodological evaluation of the impact of 8h post-dose sampling times on the predictive performance of tobramycin population PK models. It was shown that the PK parameters of the second compartment are biased when estimated using simulated concentrations from divergent sampling times of the analyzed model. The fifth chapter shows the development and evaluation of an initial tobramycin dosing nomogram based on height rather than body weight to further individualize antibiotic therapy for CF patients. It was found that doses derived from the proposed nomogram resulted in significantly reduced variability in predicted peak concentrations values in comparison to what is observed in clinical practice, which could potentially improve clinical outcomes for CF patients. This memoire has therefore demonstrated the importance of modeling and simulations in a clinical setting to improve the management of CF in adult patients.

Local delivery of medication to the lung is highly desirable as the principal advantages include reduced systemic side effects and higher dose levels of the applicable medication at the site of drug action. This administration could be particularly useful for patients with specifically chronic pulmonary infections or pulmonary diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, asthma or lung cancer.<p>In order to deliver a high dose range of medication for highly-dosed drugs such as antibiotics, “carrier-free” DPI formulations of tobramycin were developed with the aim of minimizing the use of excipients. Briefly, dry powders were prepared by spray drying various suspensions of tobramycin in isopropanol.<p><p>First, as particle size is a key parameter in defining drug deposition in the lungs, the new Spraytec® laser diffraction method specifically modified for measuring the PSD of aerosolized drug was evaluated. The dispersion properties of various dry powder formulations were investigated using different laser diffraction and impaction apparatuses at different flow rates and using different inhalator devices. Different correlations between geometric and aerodynamic size data were demonstrated in this study. As a potential application, for the flow rate, the different inhalation devices and the drug formulations examined, the tobramycin fine particle fraction could be predicted from measurements obtained from the Spraytec® using linear relationships. Correlations (R² > 0.9) between the MMAD and the percentage of particles with a diameter below 5 µm could be demonstrated between the results obtained from the laser diffraction technique and the impaction method. Consequently, the Spraytec® laser diffraction technique was proved to be an important tool for initial formulation and process screening during formulation development of DPIs.<p><p>In order to modify the surface properties of the raw tobramycin powder, different powder compositions were formulated with the aim of studying the influence of the concentration of tobramycin in drug suspensions used for spray-drying, the lipid film composition (cholesterol:Phospholipon ratio) and the coating level (in percentage) on the physicochemical and aerodynamic characteristics of the antibiotic.<p>The results indicated that the application of a lipid coating around the active particles allowed an improvement in particle dispersion from the inhalator, decreasing raw powder agglomeration and thus enhancing drug deposition deep in the lungs. Moreover, these results seemed to be influenced by the amount and composition of the lipids in the formulations. The evaluation of the influence of the coating level showed that the deposition of only 5% w/w lipids (on a dry basis) was sufficient to improve particle dispersion properties during inhalation. The FPF, which is around 36% for the uncoated micronized tobramycin, was increased to up to about 68% for the most effective lipid-coated formulation. Of particular importance, these results revealed the need to add sufficient amounts of covering material in order to significantly modify the particle surface properties and reduce their tendency to agglomeration, while limiting the lipid level in the formulations in order to avoid any undesirable sticking and to allow the delivery of more of the active drug to the deep lung. <p><p>Another approach used to modify the surface properties of raw tobramycin was to coat the micronized particles with nanoparticles of the drug, produced by high pressure homogenization. The evaluation of the influence of the level of nanoparticle coating of the micronized particles showed that the presence of nanoparticles in the formulations improved the particle dispersion properties during inhalation. One microparticle was completely covered with a single layer or several layers of nanoparticles, in function of the percentage of nanoparticles in the mixture. Coating the fine drug particles with particles in the nanometer range was believed to reduce Van Der Waals forces and powder agglomeration. These various layers of nanoparticles also allowed a decrease in the cohesion of the powder by improving the slip between the particles.<p>On the other hand, suspensions containing solely nanoparticles were spray dried with various concentrations of surfactant in order to produce easily dispersible and reproducible micron-size agglomerates of nanoparticles during inhalation. The evaluation of the influence of the concentration of surfactant showed that deposition of only 2% w/w (on a dry basis) of Na glycocholate is sufficient to improve particle dispersion properties during inhalation. Consequently, the use of nanoparticles in dry powder formulations increased the FPF from 36% for the uncoated micronized tobramycin to about 61% for this latter formulation.<p>To modify the balance between the different forces of interactions without the need for any excipient, the influence of formulation components on the aerosolization characteristics of spray-dried tobramycin through the use of various proportions of water in the solvent used to prepare initial suspensions was investigated. These results showed that it is possible to modify the surface properties of the particles by coating the particles of drug with a homogeneously distributed film of the active compound dissolved in a solvent system containing a mixture of different solvents such as isopropanol and water. During nebulization of the suspension, droplets are composed of one or more particles in solid state surrounded with solvent containing the dissolved drug. It is hypothesized that during the drying step, dissolved tobramycin forms a coating of the amorphous drug around particles in suspension. The coating of drug particles can thus be used as an alternative approach that permits the modification of the surface properties of the particles, increasing the flowability, the desagglomeration tendency and the fine particle fraction deposited in the deep lung. So, the evaluation of the influence of the water content of the suspensions and the effect of the inlet temperature during spray-drying showed that the addition of 2% water v/v is sufficient to improve particle dispersion during inhalation. Of particular interest, as tobramycin is a very hygroscopic drug, the addition of water turned out to be a critical step. It was thus important to add a small amount of water to the solvent system and to process the drying step at a high temperature to produce formulations containing solely the active drug and showing a FPF of up to 50%.<p><p>Moreover, stability studies demonstrated that these optimized formulations (lipid-coated formulation, nanoparticle formulation and amorphous drug-coated formulation) were stable over a long time period at various ICH temperature and relative humidity storage conditions (25°C/60% RH, 30°C/65% RH and 40°C/75% RH). The formulations were shown to keep their crystalline state, initial PSD, redispersion characteristics and deposition results for more than twelve months.<p><p>In order to confirm these encouraging results, two optimized formulations (one with a lipid coating and another with amorphous drug coating) were selected and compared to the only commercially available tobramycin formulation for inhalation, Tobi® (nebulizer solution), by performing a combined in vivo scintigraphic and pharmacokinetic evaluation of tobramycin DPIs in nine CF patients.<p>In comparison with Tobi®, it was estimated that lung deposition, expressed as a percentage of the nominal dose, was 7.0 and 4.5 times higher for the lipid-coated and amorphous tobramycin-coated formulations, respectively. Moreover, the pharmacokinetic data, adjusted to the same drug dose as that of the Tobi® deposited in the lungs, showed that the AUC values were found to be 1.6 times higher for Tobi® than for DPI formulations. So this evaluation confirmed the superiority of dry powder formulations in terms of drug deposition and reduced systemic exposure in comparison with the conventional comparator product, Tobi®.<p><p>Thus, these new and orginal tobramycin DPI formulations based on the use of very low excipient levels and presenting very high lung deposition properties, were shown to offer very good prospects for improving the delivery of drugs to the pulmonary tract and to the widest possible patient population. <p><p> / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished