The export performance of Africa has declined over the past couple of decades as a result of an increase in trade costs and the time taken to complete a trade transaction. As a result of an increase in competition, countries need to improve their efforts in adopting and developing a trade development initiative. Trade facilitation has been recognised as an element of economic growth, and it is thus seen as the most prominent trade development initiative in stimulating exports. The general objective of this study was to investigate the current state and effect of trade facilitation in South Africa and to develop a measurement to compare South Africa's state of trade facilitation performance with that of other countries in the world. The purpose of this study was to analyse and present the importance of implementing a trade facilitation programme as a trade development initiative. The need to eliminate trade barriers such as increased trade costs and the time taken to complete a trade transaction were emphasised because of the threat that they pose to efficient trade facilitation reform. Although the advantages of trade facilitation reform have long been recognised, studies on the measurement of trade facilitation are very scarce. Similar studies make use of a gravity model or a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model in order to quantify the effects, but due to indirect costs, statistical errors, incorrect proxies and other unrecognised variables, no exact index exists to measure the trade facilitation performance of world countries. Four very relevant trade performance indexes, the Logistics Performance Index, the Doing Business Report, the Enabling Trade Index and the Global Competitiveness Report, are associated with measuring a country's domestic trade variables, present in either the "hard" or the "soft" infrastructure of a country. From these indexes, 18 relevant variables were chosen that were effectively used to construct the Trade Facilitation Index whereby the trade facilitation performance of world countries was compared to that of South Africa. In South Africa, the urgency to improve the general trade environment has been recognised as trade performance in South Africa has declined considerably. Based on the relevance of trade facilitation and the beneficial effects it has on a country, the role of trade facilitation in South Africa was analysed, as well as its performance in the Trade Facilitation Index in comparison to that of other world countries. The Trade Facilitation Index also correlates to a country's GDP and its exports, proving that an increase in the Trade Facilitation Index may lead to an increase in the country's GDP and also its exports. The Trade Facilitation Index therefore serves as a useful resource for policy makers who want to apply reform strategies to trade development initiatives. / MCom (International Trade), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The export performance of Africa has declined over the past couple of decades as a result of an increase in trade costs and the time taken to complete a trade transaction. As a result of an increase in competition, countries need to improve their efforts in adopting and developing a trade development initiative. Trade facilitation has been recognised as an element of economic growth, and it is thus seen as the most prominent trade development initiative in stimulating exports. The general objective of this study was to investigate the current state and effect of trade facilitation in South Africa and to develop a measurement to compare South Africa's state of trade facilitation performance with that of other countries in the world. The purpose of this study was to analyse and present the importance of implementing a trade facilitation programme as a trade development initiative. The need to eliminate trade barriers such as increased trade costs and the time taken to complete a trade transaction were emphasised because of the threat that they pose to efficient trade facilitation reform. Although the advantages of trade facilitation reform have long been recognised, studies on the measurement of trade facilitation are very scarce. Similar studies make use of a gravity model or a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model in order to quantify the effects, but due to indirect costs, statistical errors, incorrect proxies and other unrecognised variables, no exact index exists to measure the trade facilitation performance of world countries. Four very relevant trade performance indexes, the Logistics Performance Index, the Doing Business Report, the Enabling Trade Index and the Global Competitiveness Report, are associated with measuring a country's domestic trade variables, present in either the "hard" or the "soft" infrastructure of a country. From these indexes, 18 relevant variables were chosen that were effectively used to construct the Trade Facilitation Index whereby the trade facilitation performance of world countries was compared to that of South Africa. In South Africa, the urgency to improve the general trade environment has been recognised as trade performance in South Africa has declined considerably. Based on the relevance of trade facilitation and the beneficial effects it has on a country, the role of trade facilitation in South Africa was analysed, as well as its performance in the Trade Facilitation Index in comparison to that of other world countries. The Trade Facilitation Index also correlates to a country's GDP and its exports, proving that an increase in the Trade Facilitation Index may lead to an increase in the country's GDP and also its exports. The Trade Facilitation Index therefore serves as a useful resource for policy makers who want to apply reform strategies to trade development initiatives. / MCom (International Trade), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / It is necessary to improve on Africa poor and stagnated share of the global trade and to attract bigger share of the global investments funds to meet the growing developmental challenges. The bottlenecks at the borders of most countries have made Africa the continent with the highest cost of trade. This has worsened the competitiveness of the continent’s economy thereby imparting its ability to draw full benefits from the global trading system. The introduction of simpler trade procedures is expected to lower trade costs and boosts flows of goods among African countries and with the global community. It is imperative then to explore frameworks for innovative trade facilitating instruments within the ambits of the multilateral trading system to enhance intra-African trade. The idea is to evolve an Afrocentric framework that will not precipitate retaliatory measures from the trading partners. This study encourages African countries policy makers to avail themselves of the concessionary provisions in the WTO agreement to design a targeted trade facilitation framework. It is posited that an Afrocentric trade facilitation legal and regulatory policies are necessary to improve African countries capabilities to trade more with each other and with other countries at similar stage of development. This must be structured to specifically facilitate intra-Africa trade via the development of regional or sectoral competitive advantages rather than the multilateral trade facilitation protocols that is targeted to boost African trade with the international partners. A mega-regional trade agreement that will facilitate intra-African trade in the specific sectors and then use the bigger economies of scale to develop competitiveness on the global stage, is proposed. Based on the continent abundant agricultural and natural resources, and the huge and growing young populations, it is found that investments in value creating manufacturing industries in the agricultural, power and the transport sectors as well as the service sectors were found to hold the biggest potentials. This is necessary to generate large jobs and employment opportunities and diversify exports. In these sectors, region-owned companies in each sub-region to be complemented with private investors are being proposed. This is necessary due to the huge resources outlay and the poor margin that will not encourage private investors to commit into this sector. To protect the companies being proposed without precipitating retaliatory actions by the trading partners, Article XXIV, the Enabling Clause and the contingent trade protection measures as contained in Article XIX of the GATT Agreement (the safeguard measures and the subsidies and countervailing measures) were presented to be sufficient.

No abstract available. / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Centre for Human Rights / unrestricted

O objetivo do estudo foi estimar os impactos do tempo dos procedimentos portuários sobre as exportações brasileiras. O trabalho utiliza uma base de dados inovadora com dados de exportações municipais, com distinção do porto utilizado, país de destino e com produtos desagregados de acordo com o sistema harmonizado em 4 dígitos para o período de 2010 a 2012. Uma equação gravitacional em diferenças foi estimada pelo método de efeitos fixos utilizando as exportações municipais relativas (volume e número de setores exportadores) contra medidas de tempo em horas dos procedimentos portuários e outras variáveis de controle. Os resultados da análise descritiva indicam a presença de um gargalo no escoamento da produção brasileira para o mercado internacional, e apontam para a necessidade de investimentos que ampliem a capacidade portuária, reduzindo as ineficiências que geram elevadas porcentagens do tempo de inoperância nos portos brasileiros. Os resultados das estimações indicam que, de modo geral, cada hora adicional na condução dos procedimentos portuários representam custos para os exportadores brasileiros, que podem estar se refletindo em perda da competitividade dos produtos nacionais no exterior. Segundo as estimações realizadas, cada hora adicional de estadia no porto mediano é equivalente a uma redução do volume total das exportações municipais em cerca de 1%. Além disso, uma redução de 10% no tempo de estadia relativo do navio no porto pode aumentar o número de categorias de produtos exportados entre 0,3% e 0,9%. / The purpose of this study was to estimate the impacts of the port procedures time on Brazilian exports. The study uses an innovative database with municipal exports, with distinction over the port used, country of destination, and with disaggregated products according to the harmonized system in 4 digits for the period from 2010 to 2012. A difference gravity equation was estimated by the fixed effect method using the relative municipal exports (volume and the number of exporter sectors) against time measured in hours of the port procedures and other control variables. The results of descriptive analysis indicate the presence of a bottleneck in the flow of Brazilian production for the international market, and point to the need for investments that increase port capacity, reducing the inefficiencies that generate high ineffectiveness time percentages in Brazilian ports. The estimation results indicate that, in general, each additional hour in the conduction of the port procedures represent costs to the Brazilian exporters. Those costs may be reflected in loss of competitiveness of the domestic products abroad. According to the estimates made, each additional hour of the ship stay in the median port is equivalent to a reduction of the municipal exports in around 1%. Besides that, a reduction of 10% in time of stay for a ship in port can increase the number of exported product categories between 0.3% and 0.9%.

O objetivo do estudo foi estimar os impactos do tempo dos procedimentos portuários sobre as exportações brasileiras. O trabalho utiliza uma base de dados inovadora com dados de exportações municipais, com distinção do porto utilizado, país de destino e com produtos desagregados de acordo com o sistema harmonizado em 4 dígitos para o período de 2010 a 2012. Uma equação gravitacional em diferenças foi estimada pelo método de efeitos fixos utilizando as exportações municipais relativas (volume e número de setores exportadores) contra medidas de tempo em horas dos procedimentos portuários e outras variáveis de controle. Os resultados da análise descritiva indicam a presença de um gargalo no escoamento da produção brasileira para o mercado internacional, e apontam para a necessidade de investimentos que ampliem a capacidade portuária, reduzindo as ineficiências que geram elevadas porcentagens do tempo de inoperância nos portos brasileiros. Os resultados das estimações indicam que, de modo geral, cada hora adicional na condução dos procedimentos portuários representam custos para os exportadores brasileiros, que podem estar se refletindo em perda da competitividade dos produtos nacionais no exterior. Segundo as estimações realizadas, cada hora adicional de estadia no porto mediano é equivalente a uma redução do volume total das exportações municipais em cerca de 1%. Além disso, uma redução de 10% no tempo de estadia relativo do navio no porto pode aumentar o número de categorias de produtos exportados entre 0,3% e 0,9%. / The purpose of this study was to estimate the impacts of the port procedures time on Brazilian exports. The study uses an innovative database with municipal exports, with distinction over the port used, country of destination, and with disaggregated products according to the harmonized system in 4 digits for the period from 2010 to 2012. A difference gravity equation was estimated by the fixed effect method using the relative municipal exports (volume and the number of exporter sectors) against time measured in hours of the port procedures and other control variables. The results of descriptive analysis indicate the presence of a bottleneck in the flow of Brazilian production for the international market, and point to the need for investments that increase port capacity, reducing the inefficiencies that generate high ineffectiveness time percentages in Brazilian ports. The estimation results indicate that, in general, each additional hour in the conduction of the port procedures represent costs to the Brazilian exporters. Those costs may be reflected in loss of competitiveness of the domestic products abroad. According to the estimates made, each additional hour of the ship stay in the median port is equivalent to a reduction of the municipal exports in around 1%. Besides that, a reduction of 10% in time of stay for a ship in port can increase the number of exported product categories between 0.3% and 0.9%.

Magister Legum - LLM / The problems connected with transit of goods also have been mostly neglected in the respective literature so far: In most books about the law of the WTO, Article V of GATT 1994 has been left out completely or reference is only made to the text of the article. In the following, this thesis will thus examine (i) what transit restrictions exist for the transport of Ugandan goods from and to the international market through Kenya (see Chapter 2 below); (ii) whether these measures adopted in Kenya are in compliance with the relevant law of the EAC (see Chapter 3 below) and of the WTO (see Chapter 4 below); and (iii) if there is a conflict in jurisdiction in this respect (see Chapter 5 below). In addition, it will then shortly show the current status of the current negotiations of the WTO Trade Facilitation Committee and the possible implications of the Revised Draft Negotiation Text (see Chapter 6 below)

Greater access to international markets is universally accepted as the solution for many of Africa’s problems. Such increased access would theoretically allow African countries the opportunity to develop strong economies. Sustainable growth through trade would then replace the current common dependence on aid and enable African citizens to enjoy a fuller share of the myriad benefits of globalisation. The gradual global reduction in historic methods to protect markets aspects, such as tariffs, is bringing technical requirements to the fore. These requirements often become Technical Barriers to Trade (TBTs) between Africa and its trading partners. Simultaneously, there are continuous global demands for greater access to African markets. Such demands occur even as ever more stringent technical requirements for granting reciprocal access in developed markets are set. Such technical access requirements are insidiously becoming an increasingly important part of the African trading landscape. African governments increasingly need therefore to ensure that domestic industry and agriculture have appropriate and affordable access to appropriate technical support infrastructure. The current African approaches to such generally unexpected technical challenges from elsewhere, are mostly reactive donor–driven projects managed as crises. In order to address such issues proactively, a vital first step is the formulation of a mutually supportive set of national, or preferably regional, polices and associated strategies to synergistically address African issues of trade, industrialisation, agriculture and the environment. The prevalent silo approach that exists both within and among African countries in these increasingly interlinking areas unfortunately simply exacerbates an already desperate situation. The predominant focus of NEPAD presently revolves around demonstrating appropriate governance. Rather than continuing to be victims of globalisation, African states working cooperatively through NEPAD have an opportunity to redress their past difficulties. In the area of African Standards, Quality assurance, Accreditation and Metrology (SQAM) capacitation, NEPAD has an important leadership role to play. It could provide a foundation through which solutions in SQAM be cooperatively sought and addressed. Aspects relating to proving compliance to the aforementioned agricultural, industrial and environmental policies need immediate attention. An African, public administration led approach to building SQAM technical capacity would then be possible. Complying with the various and technically challenging regulatory requirements of foreign markets cannot continue be the sole thrust of Africa’s trade facilitation efforts. Implementing foreign technical solutions that make sense in a limited and different context will not deliver large scale benefits for Africa. NEPAD fostered partnerships based on mutually beneficial and optimal solutions are preferable. Such a proposed role for NEPAD includes the creation of sound theoretical public administration underpinning and successful operational facilitation for African public administrators working in concert on mutually beneficial technical SQAM support strategies. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / School of Public Management and Administration (SPMA) / Unrestricted

Doctor Legum - LLD / Regional integration has been part of Africa’s overarching strategy for economic transformation. To further enhance sustainable development and economic growth, in the African continent intra-regional trade is equally as important as international trade. Therefore, African countries are faced with the daunting task of adopting comprehensive and well-structured measures to ensure the movement of goods and people across borders are seamless and unrestrictive. Free movement of persons in particular is one of the core tenets of regional integration, building towards a common market. To that effect, the African Union (AU) based on Agenda 2063 has agreed on a Continental Free Trade Area and a Protocol on Movement of Persons indicating a commitment of attaining a single market where goods, persons and services can move freely across national borders. With the Southern African Development Community (SADC) being a Regional Economic Community (REC) recognised under the AU, this thesis seeks to argue for deeper integration by ensuring the movement of persons in the SADC is regulated beyond the scope that is recognised internationally under the International laws influencing the movement of persons. Also, this thesis argues for amendment of certain provisions in the SADC Protocol on the Facilitation of the Movement of Persons to further facilitate intra-regional trade. The SADC operates to an extent as a Free Trade Area (FTA) where goods are traded duty free across borders and the intention is to go higher up the integration ladder to become a Common Market by 2015 and an Economic Union with a Single Currency by 2018. Targets which has not been met to date. Article 5(2) (d) and Article 23 of the SADC Trade Protocol realises the significance of policy development in promoting free movement of people and services within the SADC region. To facilitate the movement of people, the SADC drafted a Protocol on the Free Movement of People in 1995. This Protocol never materialised and it was subsequently replaced by a Protocol on Facilitation on Movement of People which is limited in scope and is not yet operational as ratification by two third majority of Member States has not occurred. In 2012, a Protocol on Trade in Services which also within a limited scope influences the movement of persons in the region was also concluded but is not yet ratified by Member States of the SADC. The absence of a single consistent and comprehensive framework makes people vulnerable to informal practices at the border. Thus, the issue of ensuring free movement of people between SADC Member States still remains debatable and unresolved.

Magister Legum - LLM / A popular difficulty that all SMEs have had to face is limited access to finance. The fact that banks are not prepared to finance small businesses, has exacerbated the existing 'financing gap' in the small and medium-sized business which is already present in the SME industry. In an analysis of small and medium business are faced with a myriad of difficulties often as a result of restrictions in current collateral systems that do not offer a viable degree of risk mitigation due to ineffectual legislation, insufficient enforcement procedures, or an existing legal structure.1 All of these have therefore made factoring a great choice as far as SMEs go in all African countries that want to have access to financial services. Factoring is the service that, in order to provide the underlying credit sales of goods or services (known as a factor), is provided by a third-party.