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Export is a top priority for Sweden's economy but for Swedish companies it may involve uncomfortable risks of exporting without sincere consideration. When the United Nations Security Council puts an embargo against a country, this often mean an import and export restriction. The thought is to push undemocratic regimes into respecting human rights. When the embargo is in force, however, the parties are not able to fulfill their contractual obligations, which practically means that the agreement will be suspended. The problem is what happens when an embargo is in force for a longer period of time. After the embargo is withdrawn, the price on the market may have changed significantly, which indicates a financial sacrifice for a seller if he has to provide specific performance to the buyer. The question thus is whether the seller, after a prolonged economic sanctions is withdrawn, still is obliged to provide specific performance? The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) is applicable where both parties are signatories to CISG or by rules of international private law. To require performance as a buyer is a general right in Article 46 CISG, but there are exceptions to this rule in Article 28 CISG. Article 28 CISG states that if one party is entitled to require performance of any obligation by the other party, a court is not bound to enter a judgment for specific performance unless the court would do so under its own law in respect of similar contracts of sale not governed by this Convention. Since CISG advocates a harmonized application of international trade, the right to specific performance cannot be waived just on the basis of Article 28 CISG alone. With regard to good faith in international trade in Article 7 (1) CISG, the principle of reasonableness, which is a general principle that the CISG is based upon in accordance with Article 7 (2) CISG and 7.2.2 (b) UPICC, and with the support of international usage regularity observed in the trade concerned in Article 9 CISG, the right to specific performance does not exist anymore after a prolonged embargo has been withdrawn. / Export är högprioriterat för Sveriges ekonomi men för svenska företag kan det inne-bära obekväma risker med att exportera utan eftertanke. När Förenta Nationernas säkerhetsråd går in och lägger ett embargo mot en stat innebär detta ofta en import- och export restriktion. Tanken är att pressa odemokratiska regimer att respektera mänskliga rättigheter. När embargot är i kraft kan dock parterna inte uppfylla sina avtalsförpliktelser vilket innebär att avtalet blir suspenderat. Det problematiska är vad som händer då ett embargo är i kraft under en längre tid. Efter det att ett embargo lyfts kan priset på marknaden ändrats avsevärt vilket innebär en ekonomisk uppoffring för en säljare att tvingas fullgöra i natura. Frågan blir då om säljare efter det att en långvarig ekonomisk sanktion lyfts, fortfarande är tvingen att fullgöra i natura? Lag (1987:822) om internationella köp(CISG) blir tillämplig i det fall då båda parters stater är signatärer eller genom privaträttsliga regler. Att kräva fullgörelse som köpare är en generell rätt i artikel 46 CISG men det finns ett explicit undantag till denna regel i artikel 28 CISG. Artikel 28 CISG stadgar att domstol som ska lösa tvisten, inte är skyldig att meddela dom på fullgörelse om domstol enligt egen forumlandets egen lagstiftning inte skulle ha gjort detta. Skulle tvisten lösas i Svensk domstol blir 23 § köplag (1990:931) tillämplig. Eftersom CISG förespråkar en harmoniserad tillämpning inom internationell handel är det inte tillförlitligt att mena på att rätten till fullgörelse bortfaller med stöd av endast artikel 28 CISG. Med beaktande av god sed i internationell handel i artikel 7(1) CISG, principen om rimlighet/förnuftig person som är en generell princip som CISG är baserat på i enlighet med artikel 7(2) CISG och 7.2.2 (b) UPICC, samt med stöd av handelsbruk i artikel 9 CISG, bortfaller rätten till fullgörelse i natura efter det att ett långvarigt embargo har lyfts.

Many people might think that downloading music without paying for it is not a big issue. Copyright owners disagree with this kind of reasoning because to them, music is intellectual property with substantial commercial value. Copyright law is the primary form of protection for intellectual property and is based on the fundamental principle that copyright works cannot be reproduced without the express consent of the copyright owner. During the late 90’s however, new technology made it possible for millions of people to download music from the Internet without the express consent of copyright owners. The mere act of downloading songs illegally violates the exclusive right of the copyright owner to reproduce the work. It has also created problems within copyright law that was not foreseeable in the 17th century when the Statute of Anne was enacted. In law, there is always an exception to the rule and it is no different with copyright law. Although copyright owners have the exclusive right to reproduce their work, the general public has been granted exceptions to make fair dealing of copyright works for private or personal use, purposes of research, private study, criticism, review or for reporting current events in a magazine, newspaper or periodical, broadcasting or by using the work in a cinematograph film by virtue of s12 of the Copyright Act 98 of 1978. However, the list of exceptions supra may be changed and/or extended, provided that it remains in line with the international conventions and agreements that South Africa is a member to. The three-step test is inter alia provided for in Art. 9(2) of the Berne Convention1 (Paris Text of 1971) and permit exceptions to the reproduction right of the copyright owner: 1) in certain special cases; 2) that do not conflict with the normal exploitation of the work and; 3) that does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author/rights holder. S17 provides that certain subsections of s12 shall apply mutatis mutandis with reference to sound recordings. However, s12(1)(a) is not one of the subsections mentioned in s17 which means that fair dealing in sound recordings for purposes of research or private study, or for personal or private use is NOT permitted. Fair dealing however, is not absolute nor is it an easy doctrine to interpret. The legal interpretation and application of fair dealing has been fraught with complexity since the English courts first dealt with fair abridgement of literary works between the 17th and 18th century but this complexity has been compounded even more by new technology, especially in relation to music works. The legal uncertainty of fair dealing with regard to music works is the reason why this comparative research has been undertaken in the jurisdictions of South Africa, the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States. Hopefully it will shed more light on the doctrine and lift the veil of confusion. / Jurisprudence / LLM

This item was digitized as part of the Million Books Project led by Carnegie Mellon University and supported by grants from the National Science Foundation (NSF). Cornell University coordinated the participation of land-grant and agricultural libraries in providing historical agricultural information for the digitization project; the University of Arizona Libraries, the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, and the Office of Arid Lands Studies collaborated in the selection and provision of material for the digitization project.

Standards are necessary for an efficient functioning of the market and their regulation is an increasingly important area of law. Such is their importance that today it is possible to find thousands of standards developed by international standardising bodies, governmental agencies and even private companies in products that range from SIM cards and medical devices, to the pasteurisation of milk and computer protocols. Reasons that justify their widespread use are not difficult to ascertain: they play, for example, an important role in the achievement of economies of scale in manufacturing and in the attainment of compatibility of products and processes. However, together with these positive effects, standards can also have discriminatory consequences for trading partners, especially in cases in which they are badly designed and applied (for example, when they are introduced with the real purpose of creating an artificial comparative advantage for domestic producers). Given the existence of these ambivalent effects, three different policy tools have been developed within the World Trade Organisation (WTO) legal regime, aimed at maximising the benefits derived from the use of standards: harmonisation, equivalence and mutual recognition. The present thesis investigates the way in which both the WTO Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) and Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) Agreements regulate these three instruments, and also, the potential shortcomings of the system from a trade law perspective. For that purpose, it studies relevant legal provisions of both Agreements, WTO jurisprudence and guidelines issued by international standardising bodies, among other topics.

The WTO is one piece in a complex network of international, regional and domestic legal systems and regulatory frameworks. The influences on the development of WTO law extend far beyond its own Members and institutions: domestic legal instruments have provided the inspiration for numerous WTO obligations while the rights and obligations under the covered agreements are frequently incorporated into the legal systems of the Membership. The WTO is home to numerous committees and working groups that also engage with other international bodies and their domestic counterparts. Transnational actors seek to take advantage of these networks, encouraging WTO law to develop in their favour. The interactions involved, however, are highly complex and unpredictable. By drawing on different models of causal explanation, it is possible to offer a perspective on the development of WTO law that accepts its role as part of a larger globalized process. Three different causal influences are identified: instrumental, systemic and constitutive. Together, they offer a prism through which to examine the development of WTO law as it responds to the behaviour of transnational actors, bridging gaps between international relations and law and, it is hoped, offering a convincing explanatory rationale for the way in which WTO law develops.

"Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de maîtrise en droit (LL.M) option recherche" / Encore une fois, il semble que la question des subventions agricoles ait refait surface comme l'élément clé du présent cycle de négociations commerciales multilatérales à l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC). Pourtant, le cycle d'Uruguay, qui s'est achevé en 1994, avait tenté de rétablir l'agriculture comme un secteur «normal» de négociations à l'OMC. Or, il semble que plutôt que d'en faire un secteur comme les autres en ce qui a trait aux subventions, le cycle d'Uruguay ait surtout contribué à établir un régime de disciplines pour l'agriculture qui se distingue à plusieurs égards du régime général établi par l'Accord sur les subventions et les mesures compensatoires (SMC). Une analyse des disciplines en place lors du système GATT (1947-1994) démontre que ce double régime n'avait pas formellement été mis en place avant la conclusion, en 1994, de l'Accord SMC et de l'Accord sur l'agriculture. En fait, malgré quelques distinctions qui sont apparues graduellement, ce clivage ne s'est véritablement effectué qu'à partir du cycle d'Uruguay. Tant sur le plan des subventions à l'exportation que du soutien interne, il apparaît que le système actuel impose des règles beaucoup moins contraignantes pour les subventions de produits agricoles que pour tout autre produit. Cette situation s'explique, en partie, par le haut degré de sensibilité politique de l'agriculture, de même que par certaines particularités économiques intrinsèques à cette industrie. L'avenir de ce double régime demeure encore incertain. Il semble cependant qu'aucun changement en profondeur ne peut être anticipé pour le présent cycle de Doha. / Once again, it seems that the issue of agricultural subsidies has emerged has the key concern of the current round of WTO multilateral trade negotiations - even as the Uruguay Round, which was completed in 1994, had tried to bring agriculture back into a "normal" negotiating sector at the WTO. Rather, it seems that instead of making it a sector like any other concerning subsidies, the Uruguay Round has above al1 contributed to establish a regime of disciplines for agriculture that distinguished itself in many respect from the general regime established by the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM). An examination of disciplines in place during the GATT system (1947-1994) shows that this double regime was not formally instituted before the conclusion, in 1994, of the SCM Agreement and of the Agreement on Agriculture. In fact, despite a few distinctions that evolved gradual1y, this division only real1y established itself from the Uruguay Round onwards. With regard to export subsidies as wel1 as to domestic support, it appears that the current system subjects subsidies in the field of agriculture to rules are substantially less restricting than subsidies in other fields. This situation can be explained in part by the high degree of political sensitivity in agriculture, as wel1 as by some of the intrinsic economic characteristics of this sector. The future of this double regime remains uncertain. However, it seems that no major change can be expected during the current Doha Round.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, School of Law / The research is divided in seven sections where the problem of the interpretation and applicability of Art XXIII GATT to the Laws and Practices under the Anti-Dumping Agreement is examined. Chapter I identifies the problems, raises the research question and gives an overview of the current state of the matters under observation. In Chapter II the general theory of interpretation is studied and subsequently applied to Art XXIII specifically, taking into account the meaning, scope, historical evolution and current interpretations of Art XXIII. Chapter III revises the theory of coherent interpretation of Art XXIII in connection with the Anti-Dumping Agreement specifically. The constitutional structure and principles of the WTO are questioned, dissected and supported to decant a handful of fundamental principles which shall inform the rest of the interpretation applied in the research. This chapter takes the interpretation from an abstract perspective to a material view of a coherent interpretation of both Art. XXIII and the Anti-Dumping Agreement. Chapter IV revises the facts, laws and practices of Anti-Dumping being used as a protectionist measure in disguise both using procedural and substantial arguments which are illustrated in the laws and practices of seven countries. The findings in Chapter IV lead to Chapter V which questions the legitimacy and validity of considering the possible applicability of Art XXIII to the anti-Dumping Agreement as it is currently implemented by the WTO membership. Those reflections lead to the consideration and mention of Competition as a public good in international trade in Chapter VI, which is a key element for the final findings of this research. The conclusion of this research is inclined to suggest that in order to keep the legal system of the WTO functional, a stronger economic constitutional approach that allows for the application of art XXIII in situations subversive to the principles of free trade is necessary. The adaptation of a theory of an economic constitution is proposed.

Submitted by Jailda Nascimento (jmnascimento@pucsp.br) on 2016-09-22T18:54:11Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Marcelo Pereira Longo.pdf: 1545512 bytes, checksum: 06520871f14ae90b5f2f74af813c9fe3 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-22T18:54:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Marcelo Pereira Longo.pdf: 1545512 bytes, checksum: 06520871f14ae90b5f2f74af813c9fe3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-05-24 / This thesis notes that the Brazilian law treats the various market agents unevenly. The national Trade Law makes an express distinction between the economic activity carried out by businessman and non-businessman. The businessman´s performance is regulated by the Trade Law. This means having access to a number of institutes that help to boost investment in productivity and provide protection. This differentiated approach generates negative effects for the economy because it fails to meet other market agents (only because they are not characterized as businessman). Considering the opposition is a Trade Law problem (with consequences for the market), it is better to understand its operation (with crisis or not). It is necessary to consider all the agents that act economically. There is a tendency to overcome the differentiation between the agents of economic activities that has been described in this thesis. Therefore, it is based on legislative guidelines adopted by the European Union and the UN, as well as on specific considerations of some Brazilian authors. It is suggested a guidance to overcome this artificial setting. The economic practice promotes relations between the various market agents. Thus, this work is structured in order to demonstrate that the Trade Law: 1) separates certain agents from their protection; 2) do not understand the market dynamics; 3) it is trampled on outdated theories that do not keep proper relationship to the economic reality and the present moment; 4) does not consider the way of exercising economic activity as a whole (observing various market participants); 5) does not recognize the business character in different legal entities of private law and independent professionals. In the end, this article presents how to overcome this anomaly of the Brazilian Trade Law, which relegates non-businessmen to Civil Law rules. This model denotes a great dislike for non-businessmen because the Trade and Civil Law do not devote significant studies on this subject, either point solutions to overcome the problem mentioned / A tese parte da constatação de que a legislação brasileira trata os diversos agentes do mercado de maneira desigual. O Direito Comercial pátrio faz uma expressa distinção entre a atividade econômica exercida pelo empresário e pelo não empresário. O agir do empresário está regulamentado pelo Direito Comercial. Isso significa ter acesso a uma série de institutos que o ajudam a dinamizar os investimentos na produtividade e lhe oferece proteção. Essa abordagem diferenciada gera efeitos negativos para a economia, pois deixa de atender a outros agentes do mercado (somente pelo fato de não se caracterizarem como empresário). Sendo a oposição um problema do Direito Comercial (com consequências para o mercado), nada mais natural do que compreender o seu funcionamento (havendo crises ou não). É preciso considerar todos os agentes que atuam economicamente. Há uma tendência, exposta nesta tese, de superar a diferenciação entre exercentes de atividades econômicas. Para tanto, baseia-se em diretrizes legislativas adotadas pela União Europeia e pela ONU, bem como em ponderações, pontuais, de alguns autores brasileiros. Sugere-se uma direção para suplantar essa configuração artificial. O exercício econômico promove relações entre os diversos agentes do mercado. Nesse sentido, este trabalho se estrutura de forma a demonstrar que o Direito Comercial: 1) sectariza determinados agentes de sua proteção; 2) não entende a dinâmica do mercado; 3) está calcado em teorias ultrapassadas que não guardam a devida relação com a realidade econômica e a atualidade; 4) não engendra o modo de exercer a atividade econômica como um todo (observando os diversos agentes do mercado); 5) não reconhece o caráter empresarial em diversas pessoas jurídicas de direito privado, e em profissionais liberais. O presente trabalho, ao final, aponta caminhos a serem percorridos para vencer essa anomalia do Direito Comercial brasileiro, que relega os não empresários ao regramento do Direito Civil. Esse modelo denota um grande desapreço pelo não empresário, pois o Direito Comercial e o Direito Civil não dedicam estudos significativos acerca dessa temática, tampouco apontam soluções buscando a superação do problema verificado