Die Uferfiltration (UF) ist eine potentielle Alternative zur konventionellen Oberflächenwasseraufbereitung in Indien, da Trübstoffe, pathogene Mikroorganismen und organische Wasserinhaltsstoffe effektiv entfernt werden. In dieser Arbeit wurde erstmals ein umfangreicher Überblick zu bestehenden UF-Anlagen in Indien erarbeitet. Für die Standorterkundung und -bewertung wurde ein Konzept erarbeitet, das an drei Standorten entlang des Ganges getestet und weiterentwickelt wurde. Das Konzept umfasst vier Stufen: Standortvorerkundung, Bestimmung von Grundwasserleiterparametern, Erfassung von hydraulischen und Beschaffenheits-parametern sowie numerische Grundwasser-strömungsmodellierung. Entlang des oberen Flusslaufes des Ganges (Haridwar und Srinagar) wurden günstige geohydraulische Verhältnisse identifiziert (kf = 10E-4 bis 10E-3 m/s, Grundwasser leitermächtigkeit 11 bis 20 m). Entlang des unteren Flusslaufes (Patna) gibt es in Abhängigkeit von der Mächtigkeit der Sedimentablagerungen im Ganges nur bei erhöhter Schleppkraft im Monsun eine gute hydraulische Verbindung zwischen dem Fluss und dem Grundwasserleiter. In Haridwar wurde der Uferfiltratanteil im Rohwasser mittels Isotopenanalysen (δ18O) und Leitfähigkeitsmessungen im Fluss- und Rohwasser ermittelt. Der Uferfiltratanteil in den auf einer Insel und südlich davon gelegenen Brunnen liegt bei bis zu 90%. An den untersuchten Standorten wird durch die UF eine effektive Entfernung von E. coli um 3,5 bis 4,4 Log10 und der Trübung bis >2 Log10 Einheiten erreicht. Eine Entfernung von 3 Log10 Einheiten wurde bereits bei einer Fließzeit des Uferfiltrats von zwei Tagen beobachtet. Die erhöhte Anzahl an Coliformen in einigen Brunnen am Standort Haridwar resultiert aus Verunreinigungen des landseitigen Grundwassers. Bei Hochwässern und Starkregenereignissen muss eine Kontamination durch den direkten Eintrag von Wasser durch undichte Brunnenabdeckungen, Risse in den Schächten bzw. unsachgemäßen Brunnenbau berücksichtigt werden. Die Anwendung des angepassten Untersuchungskonzepts an 15 weiteren UF-Standorten in Indien hat gezeigt, dass die niedrigen DOC-Konzentrationen im Flusswasser (0,9 bis 3,0 mg/L) und im Brunnenwasser (0,4 bis 2,3 mg/L) günstig für die Anwendung der UF sind. Bei erhöhten DOC-Konzentrationen (Vormonsun) im Flusswasser konnte in Delhi und Mathura im Monsun eine 50%ige Verminderung erreicht werden. Bei der Erkundung neuer UF-Standorte in bergigen Gebieten sind die Grundwasserleitermächtigkeit mit geophysikalischen Erkundungsverfahren, die Strömungsverhältnisse in den alluvialen Ablagerungen sowie lokale Hochwasserrisiken zu untersuchen. / Riverbank filtration or bank filtration (RBF / BF) is a potential alternative to the direct abstraction and conventional treatment of surface water by virtue of the effective removal of pathogens, turbidity, suspended particles and organic substances. A comprehensive overview of existing RBF systems in India has been compiled for the first time. To systematically select and investigate new and existing potential RBF sites in India, a methodological concept was developed and tested at three sites along the Ganga River. The four stages of the concept are: initial site-assessment, basic site-survey, monitoring of water quality and quantity parameters and determination of aquifer parameters and numerical groundwater flow modelling. Suitable geohydraulic conditions for RBF (hydraulic conductivity: 10E-4 to 10E-3 m/s, aquifer thickness: 11 to 20 m) exist along the upper course of the Ganga (Haridwar and Srinagar). Due to the presence of fine sediment layers beneath the river bed along the Ganga’s lower course (Patna), river-aquifer interaction occurs during increased shear stress on the riverbed in monsoon. The portion of bank filtrate abstracted by the wells in Haridwar was determined from isotope analyses (Oxygen 18) and electrical conductivity measurements of river and well water and is up to 90% for wells located on an island and between the river and a canal. The results were confirmed by groundwater flow modelling. A high removal of E. coli (3.5 to 4.4 Log10 units) and turbidity (>2 Log10 units) was observed at the investigated sites. An E. coli removal of 3 Log10 units was observed for short travel times of 2 days. Higher coliform counts in some wells occur due to contamination from landside groundwater. During floods and intense rainfall events, contamination of RBF wells from direct entry of flood water, seepage of surface runoff into the well through leaky covers, fissures in the well-heads / caissons and in-appropriately sealed well-bases has to be considered. The application of the adapted investigation concept to 15 other sites in India showed that the low DOC concentrations in river water (0.9 to 3.0 mg/L) and well-water (0.4 to 2.3 mg/L) are favourable for the application of RBF. A 50% decrease of the high (pre-monsoon) DOC concentration was observed during monsoon in Delhi and Mathura. For the exploration of new RBF sites in hilly / mountainous areas, investigations of the aquifer thickness using geophysical methods, subsurface flow conditions in the alluvial deposits and the risk from floods should be conducted.

Die Bad Wildunger Kraftwagenverkehrs- und Wasserversorgungsgesellschaft mbH stellt für 20.000 Einwohner von Bad Wildungen jährlich 2 Mio. m3 Trinkwasser bereit. Dabei verbraucht der Kurbetrieb in Bad Wildungen mit 0,8 Mio. m3/a knapp die Hälfte der Wassermenge, die in die Kernstadt gefördert wird. Das Stadtgebiet von Bad Wildungen reicht vom Zentrum des Kellerwalds über die Wildunger Randstaffelzone bis an den Rand der Hessischen Senke. Da das Gebirge in kleine geologische Einheiten zerstückelt ist, fehlen ausgedehnte Grundwasserreservoire. Um Bad Wildungen mit seinem hohen Wasserbedarf unter komplizierten hydrogeologischen Gegebenheiten aus örtlichen Wasservorkommen zu versorgen, betreibt die BKW ein dezentrales Wasserversorgungsnetz mit 16 Gewinnungsanlagen. Bad Wildungen beabsichtigt, sich weiterhin eigenständig aus örtlichen Wasservorkommen zu versorgen. Eine Erweiterung der bewilligten Fördermengen um mindestens 500.000 m3/a würde dieses Vorhaben langfristig sichern. In einem Kataster der vorhandenen Gewinnungsanlagen werden die Bauweise der Brunnen und Quellen, ihre hydrogeologische Lage und ihr Erhaltungszustand beurteilt und Vorschläge für Sanierung, Neufassung oder Erweiterung der Wasserfassungen gemacht. Bei der Prospektion auf erschließbare Grundwasservorkommen habe ich durch Abflußmessungen die höchsten mittleren Abflußspenden von 2,5 bis 5,9 l/(s*km2) und Raten der Grundwasserneubildung von 3,0 bis 4,0 l/(s*km2) in den Höhenlagen des Kellerwalds bestimmt. Im Buntsandsteingebiet des Elimer Grabens schätze ich die Grundwasserneubildung auf lediglich 1,0 l/(s*km2). Der Hahnberg-Sandstein, als Hauptgrundwasserleiter des unteren tektonischen Stockwerks im Hundsdorfer Sattel, kann zur Versorgung von Albertshausen im Sillbach-Tal gefaßt werden. Armsfeld und Hundsdorf haben die Möglichkeit, ihren Bedarf aus dem mittleren Stockwerk an der Großen Aschkoppe zu decken. Die kompetenten Schichtenfolgen der Schuppenzone des Auen-Bergs sind ein ergiebiger Kluftgrundwasserleiter im Kellerwald. Zwischen Odershausen und Haddenberg kann die Wasserfassung Auen-Berg durch weitere Brunnen vergrößert werden. Die geförderten Wassermengen könnten im freien Gefälle über Odershausen nach Bad Wildungen geführt werden. Eine Versuchsbohrung am Nordwesthang des Keller-Zugs hat unter mächtigem Hangschutt die Ense-Schuppen auf 170 m Mächtigkeit durchteuft. Die Cephalopo-den-Kalke der Ense-Schuppen haben ein durch Anlösung vergrößertes Kluftvolumen. Die ein-geschalteten Tonschieferlagen mindern jedoch die hydraulische Leitfähigkeit. Der Durchlässigkeitsbeiwert beträgt 2,7 bis 4,7 * 10-6 m/s. Nach der Auswertung von zwei Pumpversuchen und einer aufgestellten Wasserbilanz schätze ich die Förderleistung eines ausgebauten Brunnens hier auf 600 bis 900 m 3 /d. Am Nordwesthang des Braunauer Bergs können die Ense-Schuppen zusätzlich zur Dargebotserweiterung für Braunau genutzt werden. Nach vorliegenden Schätzungen hat Bad Wildungen erschließbare Dargebotsreserve von über 700.000 bis 800.000 m3/a und kann sich so zukünftig weiterhin eigenständig aus eigenen Grundwasservorkommen über ein dezentrales Netz versorgen.

Die Uferfiltration (UF) ist eine potentielle Alternative zur konventionellen Oberflächenwasseraufbereitung in Indien, da Trübstoffe, pathogene Mikroorganismen und organische Wasserinhaltsstoffe effektiv entfernt werden. In dieser Arbeit wurde erstmals ein umfangreicher Überblick zu bestehenden UF-Anlagen in Indien erarbeitet. Für die Standorterkundung und -bewertung wurde ein Konzept erarbeitet, das an drei Standorten entlang des Ganges getestet und weiterentwickelt wurde. Das Konzept umfasst vier Stufen: Standortvorerkundung, Bestimmung von Grundwasserleiterparametern, Erfassung von hydraulischen und Beschaffenheits-parametern sowie numerische Grundwasser-strömungsmodellierung. Entlang des oberen Flusslaufes des Ganges (Haridwar und Srinagar) wurden günstige geohydraulische Verhältnisse identifiziert (kf = 10E-4 bis 10E-3 m/s, Grundwasser leitermächtigkeit 11 bis 20 m). Entlang des unteren Flusslaufes (Patna) gibt es in Abhängigkeit von der Mächtigkeit der Sedimentablagerungen im Ganges nur bei erhöhter Schleppkraft im Monsun eine gute hydraulische Verbindung zwischen dem Fluss und dem Grundwasserleiter. In Haridwar wurde der Uferfiltratanteil im Rohwasser mittels Isotopenanalysen (δ18O) und Leitfähigkeitsmessungen im Fluss- und Rohwasser ermittelt. Der Uferfiltratanteil in den auf einer Insel und südlich davon gelegenen Brunnen liegt bei bis zu 90%. An den untersuchten Standorten wird durch die UF eine effektive Entfernung von E. coli um 3,5 bis 4,4 Log10 und der Trübung bis >2 Log10 Einheiten erreicht. Eine Entfernung von 3 Log10 Einheiten wurde bereits bei einer Fließzeit des Uferfiltrats von zwei Tagen beobachtet. Die erhöhte Anzahl an Coliformen in einigen Brunnen am Standort Haridwar resultiert aus Verunreinigungen des landseitigen Grundwassers. Bei Hochwässern und Starkregenereignissen muss eine Kontamination durch den direkten Eintrag von Wasser durch undichte Brunnenabdeckungen, Risse in den Schächten bzw. unsachgemäßen Brunnenbau berücksichtigt werden. Die Anwendung des angepassten Untersuchungskonzepts an 15 weiteren UF-Standorten in Indien hat gezeigt, dass die niedrigen DOC-Konzentrationen im Flusswasser (0,9 bis 3,0 mg/L) und im Brunnenwasser (0,4 bis 2,3 mg/L) günstig für die Anwendung der UF sind. Bei erhöhten DOC-Konzentrationen (Vormonsun) im Flusswasser konnte in Delhi und Mathura im Monsun eine 50%ige Verminderung erreicht werden. Bei der Erkundung neuer UF-Standorte in bergigen Gebieten sind die Grundwasserleitermächtigkeit mit geophysikalischen Erkundungsverfahren, die Strömungsverhältnisse in den alluvialen Ablagerungen sowie lokale Hochwasserrisiken zu untersuchen.:Abstract i (Seitenzahl / page number) Acknowledgements iii Table of contents v List of tables viii List of figures ix Abbreviations and symbols xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Problem description 1 1.2 Riverbank filtration and its potential in India 2 1.3 Motivation 3 1.4 Aims 4 2 Bank filtration in context to India’s water resources 5 2.1 Water budget of India and the Ganga River catchment 5 2.1.1 Water budget 5 2.1.2 The Ganga River catchment 6 2.2 Problems of surface water abstraction for drinking water production 8 2.2.1 Effect of low surface flows on the quantity of raw water abstraction 8 2.2.2 Effect of the monsoon on conventional drinking water treatment plants using directly abstracted surface water 9 2.2.3 Quality of surface water 10 2.2.4 Treatment of directly abstracted surface water for drinking 11 2.3 Sustainability issues of groundwater abstraction 11 2.4 Drinking water consumption in India 12 2.5 Bank filtration for water supply 14 2.5.1 Geohydraulic, siting and design aspects of bank filtration systems 14 2.5.2 Water quality aspects 15 2.5.3 Water quality aspects for bank filtration in India 15 2.5.4 Risks to riverbank filtration sites from floods 16 2.6 Hypotheses favouring the use of bank filtration and the need for a concept to investigate potential RBF sites in India 17 3 Study areas 18 3.1 Choice of study areas 18 3.2 Case study site Haridwar 19 3.3 Case study site Patna 20 3.4 Case study site Srinagar in Uttarakhand 21 3.5 Hypotheses favouring RBF at the selected study sites 22 4 Methodology for the investigation of the case study sites 24 4.1 Overview of methodology for investigating the case-study sites 24 4.2 Investigations at the case study site of Haridwar 25 4.2.1 Initial site-assessment 25 4.2.2 Basic site-survey and establishing monitoring infrastructure 26 4.2.2.1 Identification of specific locations for monitoring wells 26 4.2.2.2 Geodetic survey and inventory of existing on-site infrastructure 26 4.2.2.3 Construction of exploratory wells 27 4.2.3 Determination of hydrogeological parameters 27 4.2.3.1 Sediment analyses 27 4.2.3.2 Determination of hydraulic conductivity by pump tests on large-diameter wells 29 4.2.4 Water level and stable isotope measurements 30 4.2.4.1 Water level 30 4.2.4.2 Stable isotopes 31 4.2.5 Water quality monitoring 31 4.2.5.1 Initial investigations, screening and formulation of monitoring concept 31 4.2.5.2 Comprehensive and regular monitoring 2011 - 2013 33 4.3 Investigations at the case study site of Patna 34 4.3.1 Initial site-assessment, basic-site survey and monitoring 34 4.3.2 Sampling for water quality and isotope analyses 35 4.4 Investigations at the case study site of Srinagar in Uttarakhand 35 4.4.1 Basic site-survey and establishing monitoring infrastructure 35 4.4.1.1 Identification of a specific location for a new RBF well 35 4.4.1.2 Construction of production and monitoring wells and exploratory boreholes 37 4.4.2 Determination of hydrogeological parameters and monitoring 38 4.4.2.1 Sediment analyses and determination of hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer 38 4.4.3 Water quality monitoring 40 4.5 Column experiments to determine the removal of bacteriological indicators under field conditions 40 5 Characterisation of the RBF system in Haridwar 42 5.1 Site and design aspects 42 5.1.1 Location of RBF wells 42 5.1.2 Design of RBF wells 44 5.1.3 Quantity of drinking water produced by RBF 45 5.2 Aquifer characterisation 47 5.3 Numerical groundwater flow model of RBF well field in Haridwar 49 5.3.1 Model set-up 49 5.3.2 Model calibration 50 5.4 Origin of water and mean portion of bank filtrate abstracted by RBF wells 52 5.5 Water quality 53 5.6 Analysis of presence of thermotolerant coliforms in RBF wells 56 5.7 Impact of regulated Upper Ganga Canal on RBF wells on Pant Dweep 58 5.8 Summary of case study site Haridwar 60 5.8.1 Aspects related to water quality 60 5.8.2 Benefit of groundwater flow modelling 60 6 Evaluation of the potential for RBF in Patna 62 6.1 Physiography and hydrogeology 62 6.1.1 South Ganga Plain 62 6.1.2 Patna 63 6.2 Ground and surface water levels 65 6.3 Ganga River morphology 66 6.4 Water quality 67 6.5 Numerical groundwater flow model of case study site Patna 68 6.5.1 Model geometry and initial conditions 68 6.5.2 Boundary conditions 69 6.5.3 Steady-state flow modelling 70 6.6 Isotope analyses 71 6.7 Summary of case study site Patna 71 7 Evaluation of the potential for RBF in Srinagar 73 7.1 Drinking water production and overview of geomorphology 73 7.2 RBF site characterisation 74 7.2.1 Aquifer geometry and material 74 7.2.2 Water levels 75 7.2.3 Hydraulic conductivity 76 7.3 Numerical groundwater flow model of case study site Srinagar 77 7.3.1 Model geometry and calibration 77 7.3.2 Origin of bank filtrate and travel time 78 7.4 Water quality 79 7.5 Discussion and summary of case study site Srinagar 81 8 Assessment of risks from floods and insufficient sanitary measures to RBF wells in Haridwar and Srinagar 82 8.1 Flood-risk identification from field investigations 82 8.1.1 Description of an extreme flood event in Haridwar 82 8.1.2 Description of an extreme flood event in Srinagar 82 8.1.3 Summary of identifiable risks 83 8.2 Assessment of risks to RBF wells 84 8.2.1 Design of wells and direct contamination 84 8.2.2 Field investigations on the removal of bacteriological indicators 85 8.2.3 Removal of coliforms under field conditions by column experiments 87 8.3 Proposals to mitigate risks at RBF sites Haridwar and Srinagar 89 8.3.1 Operational and technical aspects for a general risk management plan 89 8.3.2 Health aspects for a general risk management plan 89 8.3.3 Criteria for flood protection measures of RBF wells 90 8.3.4 Sanitary sealing of RBF wells 90 9 Application of initial site-assessment to investigate other RBF sites in India 92 9.1 Hydrogeology and system-design 92 9.1.1 RBF systems for small and large-scale urban water supply 92 9.1.2 “Koop” well RBF systems for small-scale rural water supply 98 9.2 Water quality parameters 98 9.2.1 Removal of bacteriological indicators by RBF 98 9.2.2 Removal of dissolved organic carbon and organic micropollutants by RBF 101 9.2.3 Inorganic parameters 102 10 Conclusions, recommendations and propagation of RBF 105 10.1 Hydrogeological and system-design considerations 105 10.2 Aspects for improvement of the concept for RBF site investigations 106 10.3 Policy and planning aspects for the propagation of RBF in India 108 References 110 Annexes 121 / Riverbank filtration or bank filtration (RBF / BF) is a potential alternative to the direct abstraction and conventional treatment of surface water by virtue of the effective removal of pathogens, turbidity, suspended particles and organic substances. A comprehensive overview of existing RBF systems in India has been compiled for the first time. To systematically select and investigate new and existing potential RBF sites in India, a methodological concept was developed and tested at three sites along the Ganga River. The four stages of the concept are: initial site-assessment, basic site-survey, monitoring of water quality and quantity parameters and determination of aquifer parameters and numerical groundwater flow modelling. Suitable geohydraulic conditions for RBF (hydraulic conductivity: 10E-4 to 10E-3 m/s, aquifer thickness: 11 to 20 m) exist along the upper course of the Ganga (Haridwar and Srinagar). Due to the presence of fine sediment layers beneath the river bed along the Ganga’s lower course (Patna), river-aquifer interaction occurs during increased shear stress on the riverbed in monsoon. The portion of bank filtrate abstracted by the wells in Haridwar was determined from isotope analyses (Oxygen 18) and electrical conductivity measurements of river and well water and is up to 90% for wells located on an island and between the river and a canal. The results were confirmed by groundwater flow modelling. A high removal of E. coli (3.5 to 4.4 Log10 units) and turbidity (>2 Log10 units) was observed at the investigated sites. An E. coli removal of 3 Log10 units was observed for short travel times of 2 days. Higher coliform counts in some wells occur due to contamination from landside groundwater. During floods and intense rainfall events, contamination of RBF wells from direct entry of flood water, seepage of surface runoff into the well through leaky covers, fissures in the well-heads / caissons and in-appropriately sealed well-bases has to be considered. The application of the adapted investigation concept to 15 other sites in India showed that the low DOC concentrations in river water (0.9 to 3.0 mg/L) and well-water (0.4 to 2.3 mg/L) are favourable for the application of RBF. A 50% decrease of the high (pre-monsoon) DOC concentration was observed during monsoon in Delhi and Mathura. For the exploration of new RBF sites in hilly / mountainous areas, investigations of the aquifer thickness using geophysical methods, subsurface flow conditions in the alluvial deposits and the risk from floods should be conducted.:Abstract i (Seitenzahl / page number) Acknowledgements iii Table of contents v List of tables viii List of figures ix Abbreviations and symbols xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Problem description 1 1.2 Riverbank filtration and its potential in India 2 1.3 Motivation 3 1.4 Aims 4 2 Bank filtration in context to India’s water resources 5 2.1 Water budget of India and the Ganga River catchment 5 2.1.1 Water budget 5 2.1.2 The Ganga River catchment 6 2.2 Problems of surface water abstraction for drinking water production 8 2.2.1 Effect of low surface flows on the quantity of raw water abstraction 8 2.2.2 Effect of the monsoon on conventional drinking water treatment plants using directly abstracted surface water 9 2.2.3 Quality of surface water 10 2.2.4 Treatment of directly abstracted surface water for drinking 11 2.3 Sustainability issues of groundwater abstraction 11 2.4 Drinking water consumption in India 12 2.5 Bank filtration for water supply 14 2.5.1 Geohydraulic, siting and design aspects of bank filtration systems 14 2.5.2 Water quality aspects 15 2.5.3 Water quality aspects for bank filtration in India 15 2.5.4 Risks to riverbank filtration sites from floods 16 2.6 Hypotheses favouring the use of bank filtration and the need for a concept to investigate potential RBF sites in India 17 3 Study areas 18 3.1 Choice of study areas 18 3.2 Case study site Haridwar 19 3.3 Case study site Patna 20 3.4 Case study site Srinagar in Uttarakhand 21 3.5 Hypotheses favouring RBF at the selected study sites 22 4 Methodology for the investigation of the case study sites 24 4.1 Overview of methodology for investigating the case-study sites 24 4.2 Investigations at the case study site of Haridwar 25 4.2.1 Initial site-assessment 25 4.2.2 Basic site-survey and establishing monitoring infrastructure 26 4.2.2.1 Identification of specific locations for monitoring wells 26 4.2.2.2 Geodetic survey and inventory of existing on-site infrastructure 26 4.2.2.3 Construction of exploratory wells 27 4.2.3 Determination of hydrogeological parameters 27 4.2.3.1 Sediment analyses 27 4.2.3.2 Determination of hydraulic conductivity by pump tests on large-diameter wells 29 4.2.4 Water level and stable isotope measurements 30 4.2.4.1 Water level 30 4.2.4.2 Stable isotopes 31 4.2.5 Water quality monitoring 31 4.2.5.1 Initial investigations, screening and formulation of monitoring concept 31 4.2.5.2 Comprehensive and regular monitoring 2011 - 2013 33 4.3 Investigations at the case study site of Patna 34 4.3.1 Initial site-assessment, basic-site survey and monitoring 34 4.3.2 Sampling for water quality and isotope analyses 35 4.4 Investigations at the case study site of Srinagar in Uttarakhand 35 4.4.1 Basic site-survey and establishing monitoring infrastructure 35 4.4.1.1 Identification of a specific location for a new RBF well 35 4.4.1.2 Construction of production and monitoring wells and exploratory boreholes 37 4.4.2 Determination of hydrogeological parameters and monitoring 38 4.4.2.1 Sediment analyses and determination of hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer 38 4.4.3 Water quality monitoring 40 4.5 Column experiments to determine the removal of bacteriological indicators under field conditions 40 5 Characterisation of the RBF system in Haridwar 42 5.1 Site and design aspects 42 5.1.1 Location of RBF wells 42 5.1.2 Design of RBF wells 44 5.1.3 Quantity of drinking water produced by RBF 45 5.2 Aquifer characterisation 47 5.3 Numerical groundwater flow model of RBF well field in Haridwar 49 5.3.1 Model set-up 49 5.3.2 Model calibration 50 5.4 Origin of water and mean portion of bank filtrate abstracted by RBF wells 52 5.5 Water quality 53 5.6 Analysis of presence of thermotolerant coliforms in RBF wells 56 5.7 Impact of regulated Upper Ganga Canal on RBF wells on Pant Dweep 58 5.8 Summary of case study site Haridwar 60 5.8.1 Aspects related to water quality 60 5.8.2 Benefit of groundwater flow modelling 60 6 Evaluation of the potential for RBF in Patna 62 6.1 Physiography and hydrogeology 62 6.1.1 South Ganga Plain 62 6.1.2 Patna 63 6.2 Ground and surface water levels 65 6.3 Ganga River morphology 66 6.4 Water quality 67 6.5 Numerical groundwater flow model of case study site Patna 68 6.5.1 Model geometry and initial conditions 68 6.5.2 Boundary conditions 69 6.5.3 Steady-state flow modelling 70 6.6 Isotope analyses 71 6.7 Summary of case study site Patna 71 7 Evaluation of the potential for RBF in Srinagar 73 7.1 Drinking water production and overview of geomorphology 73 7.2 RBF site characterisation 74 7.2.1 Aquifer geometry and material 74 7.2.2 Water levels 75 7.2.3 Hydraulic conductivity 76 7.3 Numerical groundwater flow model of case study site Srinagar 77 7.3.1 Model geometry and calibration 77 7.3.2 Origin of bank filtrate and travel time 78 7.4 Water quality 79 7.5 Discussion and summary of case study site Srinagar 81 8 Assessment of risks from floods and insufficient sanitary measures to RBF wells in Haridwar and Srinagar 82 8.1 Flood-risk identification from field investigations 82 8.1.1 Description of an extreme flood event in Haridwar 82 8.1.2 Description of an extreme flood event in Srinagar 82 8.1.3 Summary of identifiable risks 83 8.2 Assessment of risks to RBF wells 84 8.2.1 Design of wells and direct contamination 84 8.2.2 Field investigations on the removal of bacteriological indicators 85 8.2.3 Removal of coliforms under field conditions by column experiments 87 8.3 Proposals to mitigate risks at RBF sites Haridwar and Srinagar 89 8.3.1 Operational and technical aspects for a general risk management plan 89 8.3.2 Health aspects for a general risk management plan 89 8.3.3 Criteria for flood protection measures of RBF wells 90 8.3.4 Sanitary sealing of RBF wells 90 9 Application of initial site-assessment to investigate other RBF sites in India 92 9.1 Hydrogeology and system-design 92 9.1.1 RBF systems for small and large-scale urban water supply 92 9.1.2 “Koop” well RBF systems for small-scale rural water supply 98 9.2 Water quality parameters 98 9.2.1 Removal of bacteriological indicators by RBF 98 9.2.2 Removal of dissolved organic carbon and organic micropollutants by RBF 101 9.2.3 Inorganic parameters 102 10 Conclusions, recommendations and propagation of RBF 105 10.1 Hydrogeological and system-design considerations 105 10.2 Aspects for improvement of the concept for RBF site investigations 106 10.3 Policy and planning aspects for the propagation of RBF in India 108 References 110 Annexes 121

Viele Menschen arbeiten daran, dass immer ausreichend Trinkwasser in der bestmöglichen Qualität und zu sozialverträglichen Preisen zur Verfügung steht. Die Landestalsperrenverwaltung steht ganz am Anfang der Kette. Der Staatsbetrieb speichert Oberflächenwasser und gibt es als Rohwasser an Wasserwerke ab. Redaktionsschluss: 31.05.2016

In the world, improving quality and reliability of water supply systems, improving access to clean drinking water for the populations in conditions of development and intensive growth of urban settlements are considered an important issue. In this research the most important issue is improving the calculation methods of water delivery and distribution systems within urban water supply complexes. In most countries such as the USA, Germany, Russia, Israel, South Korea, China and other economically developed countries, special attention has been paid to provide clean drinking water for their population, improve the quality of design for water supply systems and ensure reliability and design of water distribution system for urban settlements. A water supply network for distributing the water for drinking and other purposes is a component of a city and municipal planning. Therefore, it needs to be planned and designed by city planners and civil engineers with the utmost care. It is also necessary to consider of factors that will have an impact, such as the location of the town or city, its current water demand, the growth in the demand in future, leakage in the systems, the required pressure in the pipes, losses in the pipes, etc. Targeted research aimed to develop scientifically grounded calculation methods for studying and developing theoretical bases for calculation water delivery and distribution system within urban water supply complexes. The study also considered new working conditions and requirements for their modernization, which are especially important worldwide. In this study the most important tasks are to improve calculation methods of water delivery and distribution systems under the condition of multi-mode water flow in pipes and uncertainties of network parameters. Further, Mazar-e-Sharif city has been considered as a case to apply the developed mathematical calculation, describing water delivery and distribution processes, rational development and reconstruction of water delivery and distribution systems. Currently, a wide range of comprehensive studies is being carried out in many countries on the use of modern computer technologies on the implementation of comprehensive measures to improve access to clean drinking water in city, through the construction of new water tanks, an extension of the existing water tanks, sewerage facilities and water supply network. The development strategy of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in line with SDG’s is first improving the supply and delivery of clean drinking water in each province of the country. Since many years the local Government of Balkh province and people of Mazar-e-sharif city are wishing to have the new modern water supply system to satisfy all needs but unfortunately, they did not success to get this opportunity. Mazar-e-Sharif is the second largest city in Afghanistan and the population is growing day by day as due to economic reasons people from other provinces immigrate to Mazar. The current water supply system is the individual/local distribution system made by the local community and some NGOs which are not standard, and the quality of the water is not satisfactory.:Table of Content CHAPTER 1 : Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Research Objectives 2 1.3 Structure of the thesis 3 1.4 Study Area 4 1.5 Socioeconomic conditions 5 1.6 Master Plan and Future Development 6 1.7 Physiography 7 1.8 Existing situation 8 1.8.1 Ground water 8 1.8.2 Water Quality 8 1.8.3 Surface Water 9 1.8.4 Actual Production 9 1.8.5 Storage 11 1.8.6 Operation of current Water Supply System 11 CHAPTER 2 : Literature review 13 2.1 Water Supply System 13 2.2 Water supply characteristics 15 2.3 Theory of hydraulic models 17 2.4 Analysis of existing theories and methodologies for modeling a water supply and distribution system in a water supply complex 31 CHAPTER 3 : Research methodology 36 3.1 Overview 36 3.2 Description of the properties and types of sets used in the model 38 3.3 Mathematical model of the water supply system 39 3.4 Mathematical model of the designed water supply network 41 3.5 Water flow continuity equation 43 3.6 Equation of water balance in tanks 44 3.7 Establishment of pressure loss in pipes, under the condition of optimal operation of tanks on the water supply system 44 3.8 The objective function of water supply network optimization 55 3.9 Limitations in optimizing the water supply network 58 3.10 Bringing distributed water consumption to network nodes of a water distribution system 60 3.11 Determination of rational parameters of a water distribution system 61 3.12 Determination of the parameters of water distribution system during the reconstruction of the existing water supply network 62 3.13 Mathematical model for optimizing the reconstruction of a water supply system 63 CHAPTER 4 : Result and Discussion 66 4.1 Assessment reliability of the results 66 4.2 Task 1 (Hydraulic calculation of a single-ring water supply network) 66 4.3 Task 2 (Hydraulic calculation of a multi-ring water supply network in simulation mode) 68 4.4 Task 3 (Test water supply network) 70 4.4.1 Water Demand 71 4.4.2 Parameters for Hydraulic Design 72 4.5 Design procedure 73 4.6 The structure of the software package and the model interface 83 4.6.1 Structure of the water supply optimization system 83 4.6.2 Optimization system control module 84 4.6.3 Graphical editor 84 4.7 Graphical editor input and output files 90 4.7.1 GDX file 90 4.7.2 Text file 90 4.8 EXCEL file 93 4.9 Water supply system indicators (pipe lengths, pipe diameters) 99 4.10 EXCEL file exists 100 CHAPTER 5 : Conclusion 109 CHAPTER 6 : References 112 CHAPTER 7 : Appendix 118 7.1 Diagram of the water supply network of a real settlement 118 7.2 Comparison of water flow rates in a real existing water supply network performed according to existing methods and using an optimization model in simulation mode 119 7.3 Comparison of the values of water consumption in the real existing water supply network performed according to existing methods and using the optimization model in the optimization mode 124 7.4 Compilation of pipe diameter in the real and optimal conditions in meters 129 7.5 Pressure in the nodes of the water supply network before connecting a new user and after connecting and reconstructing the network 135