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The Wissahickon Creek is an urban stream that runs through Montgomery and Philadelphia Counties and discharges to the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia. A majority of stream segments in the Wissahickon watershed are considered impaired by the USEPA due to sediment and nutrients. Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) were implemented in 2003 for nutrients (NO3-, PO43-, NO2-, and CBOD5) and siltation. A new TMDL for total phosphorus (TP) was proposed in 2015, despite minimal data on the effectiveness of the 2003 TMDLs. This new proposal was met with concern, suggesting more data must be collected to better understand impairment in the Wissahickon Creek. The purpose of this research was to study turbidity and nutrient responses to storm events, as storm events are known to contribute significant loads of both sediment and nutrients. Twelve sites were chosen for high frequency turbidity and water level monitoring along the Wissahickon Creek and one of its main tributaries, Sandy Run. These sites were selected around three of the major wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to determine the relative roles of WWTPs and overland flow as sources of turbidity and nutrients during storm events. The upstream site and first downstream site at each WWTP were monitored for nutrients during storms using high frequency loggers and ISCO automatic samplers. Stream assessments were done at each site to characterize in-stream physical parameters, bank vegetation, and algae cover. High frequency turbidity data suggests that the turbidity is locally sourced, as turbidity peaks at the same time as water level, or within an hour or two, at all sites regardless of storm size. Comparisons of the turbidity response with in-stream parameters and land cover helped determine that the main factor driving the turbidity response is discharge, although bank topping and impervious cover, particularly roads, may increase turbidity responses at some sites. Similarities in nutrient, turbidity, and conductivity responses upstream and downstream of the WWTPs strongly suggest that overland flow, not WWTP effluent, is the major source of nutrients and sediment during storm events. Finally, a strong relationship between total phosphorus and high turbidity suggests that only during high discharge events is there a significant increase in TP in the Wissahickon Creek. Results from this research identify the source of turbidity and nutrients to the Wissahickon Creek during storms as primarily coming from overland flow, that the primary factor controlling the turbidity response is discharge, with some secondary influence from over-banking and the contribution of roads to land use, and a close link between TP concentrations and sediment during storms in the stream. / Geology

Yes / This study used sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) analysis and a jar test apparatus to investigate the molecular weight (MW) and turbidity removal potential of Hibiscus seeds. Three Hibiscus species were assessed: okra crude extract (OCE), sabdariffa crude extract (SCE), and kenaf crude extract (KCE). Furthermore, purified versions of each [i.e., purified okra protein (POP), purified sabdariffa protein (PSP), and purified kenaf protein (PKP)] obtained from anionic exchange were evaluated. The results show that whereas the crude extracts had multiple proteins with MW sizes between 11 and 82 kDa, the purified samples consisted of a single coagulant protein band around 39 kDa. In each case, significant turbidity removal was recorded with the purified proteins; POP, PSP and PKP achieved approximately 98%, 94%, and 90% removal, respectively, at a reduced dosage of ≤0.6  mg/L. However, OCE and SCE achieved lower turbidity removal of 86% and 85% using 40-mg/L doses, respectively, whereas KCE recorded only 73% turbidity removal with a 60-mg/L dose. Sludge generation by crude and purified proteins was approximately 25% of sludge produced by aluminum sulfate and had the additional benefit of being biodegradable. Therefore, the coagulant protein in Hibiscus plant seeds has potential applications for improvements to accessing clean water in developing countries.

Phosphates are used by drinking water utilities to 1) reduce iron/manganese aesthetic problems by sequestration, 2) inhibit calcium carbonate scale formation via threshold inhibition, and 3) reduce corrosion of pipes by forming protective pipe scales. Orthophosphates can control lead, copper and iron corrosion through the formation of durable, low solubility scale, but are widely believed ineffective for sequestration or anti-scaling. Conversely, polyphosphates are effective sequestrants and anti-scalants, but can increase corrosion of plumbing materials. Here, we first critically reviewed the current state of the science, operational guidance, and knowledge gaps related to use of orthophosphate and polyphosphates for all three objectives. Three major gaps in understanding were identified and then addressed in subsequent chapters: 1) use of phosphates to achieve both sequestration and anti-scaling 2) mechanisms of iron sequestration, and 3) stabilization of magnesium silicate scale linings in a distribution system. In the critical review, we holistically conceptualize phosphate use as a three-dimensional (3-D) challenge of optimizing sequestration, anti-scaling and corrosion control. Despite nearly a century of widespread use, there is a poor scientific and practical understanding of how to use phosphates to achieve each of these key objectives, much less achieve synergies and avoid antagonistic effects. Many water systems are reliant on trial-and-error methods, or guidance from vendors of these proprietary chemicals, creating potential inefficiencies or even adverse unintended consequences. Effective sequestration of iron and manganese, to prevent formation of visible discoloration, can occur through four possible mechanisms which are undoubtedly dependent on the water chemistry (e.g., pH, hardness, redox). Anti-scaling of calcium carbonate occurs through threshold inhibition and crystal distortion, but sometimes phosphates can encourage scaling due to the precipitation of calcium phosphate. Corrosion control via orthophosphate is often effective, but polyphosphates can sometimes increase lead or copper levels in drinking water. Despite their widespread use in scientific studies, it was discovered that standardized measurements of color and turbidity do not fully account for the range of subjective consumer observations regarding cloudy or discolored water. At a constant apparent color of 110 Pt-Co, testing illustrated that relatively non-offensive air bubbles had a high turbidity of 74 NTU compared to just 0.1 NTU for offensively orange fulvic acid. Additionally, factors such as background color, type of light source, and direction of light significantly influenced perception of discolored water. For instance, under typical laboratory lighting conditions (light from above) with a white background, colors caused by iron, manganese, and fulvic acid were very prominent, whereas white calcium carbonate and magnesium silicate particles were more challenging to see. But white particles became much more prominent when the light source was from below or there was a darker background. A study of Fe sequestration was conducted to elucidate a mechanistic basis for the empirical trends revealed in the utility field study. As revealed in the literature review, polyphosphates could sequester Fe by inhibiting any step of the reaction sequence Fe2+ oxidation  precipitation of Fe(OH)3  particle agglomeration to visible sizes. Phosphates generally inhibited Fe2+ oxidation above about pH 7-8, dependent on chain length, and catalyzed oxidation at lower pHs. But in oxygenated waters above about pH 7, the dominant mechanism of sequestration was some combination of Fe3+ complexation and colloid stabilization at small particle sizes that were practically invisible. Increasing the phosphate chain length, phosphate concentration, and Si concentration caused more effective Fe sequestration, whereas Ca, Mg, and increased pH hindered its effectiveness. It was also discovered that orthophosphate can be an effective sequestrant under ideal conditions, polyphosphate can sequester more than 1 mg/L Fe despite some claims to the contrary, and Ca at very high doses can precipitate polyphosphates. During this dissertation work, a novel, thick (~1 mm), glassy magnesium silicate (MgSi) scale was discovered covering much of the pipe surfaces in a large water distribution system. This MgSi lining was hypothesized to be an extremely effective means of corrosion control that was important to maintain in its present state, as dissolution could cause it to detach from pipes, whereas further precipitation could clog them. To better understand how to maintain the scale, factors affecting the formation and dissolution of the MgSi solid were examined. Phosphate corrosion inhibitors had little effect on MgSi solubility at pH 8.5 and 10, while hexametaphosphate (HMP) and zinc orthophosphate slightly reduced Mg and Si dissolution rates at pH 7. Zinc orthophosphate reduced Mg dissolution by 50% and completely inhibited Si dissolution from the solid, while HMP decreased dissolution of Mg by 32% and Si by 63%. The magnesium silicate did not precipitate below pH 10 without the presence of a pre-existing seed solid. With a pre-existing seed scale, however, the MgSi further precipitated at a pH 8.5-9 in one source water and 7.5-8 in another. Below these pH levels, scale dissolution was shown to occur. Strategies were evaluated to help identify the equilibration pH for operation of a system with varying concentrations of silica, magnesium and pH. The two-dimensional (2-D) interplay of polyphosphate use for sequestration and anti-scaling was investigated for nine small utilities who rely on groundwater in North Carolina. Bench-top testing methods were developed to determine the 'optimal phosphate doses,' defined here as the lowest level of polyphosphate that maintains visually clear water and acceptable levels of scale formation. One proprietary polyphosphate chemical had an optimal sequestrant dose that depends on the concentration of Fe, Mn, Ca, and Mg. The dose (in mg/L as P) is equal to 58.5[Fe] + 59.7[Mn] + 0.041[Ca + Mg] + 0.4669 (units mM). Interestingly, color was well correlated with particulate (> 0.45 μm) Mn (R2 = 0.79) while turbidity was mostly correlated with particulate iron (R2 = 0.60). Furthermore, neither color nor turbidity measurements were reliable predictors of discoloration detected by eye. In the three utilities with higher hardness (> 100 mg/L as CaCO3), at least 3.6X more phosphate was needed for Fe and Mn sequestration than scale inhibition. But lab testing in very hard water with 300 mg/L as CaCO3 demonstrated that achieving anti-scaling, will sometimes require more polyphosphate than that needed for control of sequestration. Overall, this dissertation advances understanding of phosphate use in relation to important problems arising in water distribution or buildings. The innovative practical testing methods, improved practical understanding, and mechanistic insights can be applied to maximized the benefits of phosphates use while avoiding detriments. This is an important first step towards developing a rational holistic framework to guide utility decision-making regarding phosphate use. / Doctor of Philosophy / Phosphates are safe chemicals dosed to drinking water for a variety of objectives. Phosphates can prevent black water caused by manganese, red water caused by iron, clogging of pipes by precipitation of CaCO3, and to control corrosion of lead, copper and iron pipes. The simplest and least expensive phosphate is orthophosphate. Several orthophosphate molecules can be joined together to form a chain of 2 phosphates (pyrophosphate), a chain of 3 phosphates (tripolyphosphates), and chains up to 100s of phosphates in length. Some utilities only use orthophosphate to control pipe corrosion, and orthophosphate is not believed to be very effective for sequestration or anti-scaling. Conversely, polyphosphates can reduce red and black water from iron/manganese discoloration, and also inhibit the formation of calcium carbonate scale, but they sometimes increase corrosion of plumbing materials. Here, we review the current state of the science, operational guidance, and knowledge gaps related to use of ortho- and poly-phosphates. Three major gaps in understanding were identified and then addressed in subsequent chapters: 1) use of phosphates to achieve sequestration and anti-scaling simultaneously, 2) improve our understanding of how phosphates stop iron and red water (i.e., sequestration), and 3) stabilization of magnesium silicate scale linings in a distribution system. In a critical review, the use of phosphate for sequestration, anti-scaling and corrosion control was comprehensively examined. Despite nearly a century of widespread use, there is little understanding of how to properly use phosphates to achieve each objective. For dosing, many water systems rely on trial-and-error methods or guidance from chemical vendors, which could lead to mistakes that cause harmful unintended consequences. This could include elevated lead and copper release at the consumer's tap, increased consumer complaints caused by aesthetically displeasing water, increased head loss in pipes, and staining of dishes and appliances. Despite their widespread use in scientific literature, traditional measurements of color and turbidity are not always perfect measures of what is seen by eye. Additionally, factors such as background color, type of light source, and direction of light significantly influence the visual properties of water. For instance, under typical laboratory lighting conditions (light from above) with a white background, colors caused by iron, manganese, and fulvic acid were most noticeable, whereas white calcium carbonate and magnesium silicate particles were more challenging to see. In contrast, all particles became more observable when the light source was positioned below. A study of iron sequestration was conducted to investigate the ability of different phosphates to reduce the formation of red-colored water. As revealed in the literature review, polyphosphates could sequester iron in 3 different ways, but experiments revealed only two would be important in waters with higher pH and oxygen. Increasing the phosphate chain length, phosphate concentration, and silica concentration caused less visual discoloration, whereas calcium, magnesium, and increased pH had the opposite effect. It was also discovered that, at very high doses of calcium, a calcium-polyphosphate solid can precipitate. During this work, we also discovered a magnesium silicate (MgSi) scale covering much of the pipe surfaces in a large water distribution system. This MgSi lining is believed to protect underlying pipe materials from corrosion. To maintain the benefits of this protective scale, factors influencing its formation or dissolution were tested. The MgSi precipitated above pH 8.5-9 in one source water and 7.5-8 in another if a seed of the scale was present. Below this pH, the scale dissolved. The dosing of some phosphates slightly reduced the amount of scale which dissolved at a lower pH, but had no influence over the formation of more scale at higher pHs. Strategies were then evaluated to help the utility identify a good pH to operate the system, and to maintain the MgSi scale. The use of polyphosphate for sequestration and anti-scaling was investigated for nine small groundwater utilities in North Carolina. Laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the lowest level of polyphosphate that maintains visually clear water and acceptable levels of scale formation. This 'optimal polyphosphate dose' could be predicted by the iron, manganese, magnesium, and calcium concentrations of the water, at least for the utilities tested. Even in the three utilities with highest hardness in the study, more phosphate was needed for sequestration than inhibiting the formation of calcium carbonate scale. But lab testing in another very hard water with 300 mg/L as CaCO3, did demonstrate anti-scaling will sometimes require more polyphosphate than that required for sequestration. Overall, this dissertation advances understanding of phosphate use and abuse in relation to important problems arising in water distribution or buildings. The testing methods and improved practical understanding will help maximize the benefits of phosphates while avoiding detriments. This is an important first step towards developing a framework to guide utility decision-making regarding phosphate use for the benefit of consumers.

Bryant and Eastern Canyon systems are located on the northwest Gulf of Mexico, and they are characterized by a very complex sedimentological history related to glacioeustatic cycles, river discharges, and interactions of depositional and halokinetic processes. Both canyon systems were active during the low sea-level stand of Oxygen Isotope Stage 6, and provided the pathways for the transport of enormous amounts of sediments on the continental slope and abyssal plain of the northwest Gulf of Mexico. Right after their abandonment, at the beginning of Stage 5, salt diapirs encroached into the canyons, and resulted in their transformation into a network of intraslope basins. The transformation of the canyons resulted in the generation of massive sediment failures. The mid-shelf (Stages 4 and 3) to shelf edge (Stage 2) lowering of the sea-level during the last glacial episode resulted in: 1) extensive river-sourced deposits on the outer shelf and/or upper continental slope that contributed in a seaward mobilization of the underlying salt masses, and 2) the generation of numerous gravity flows and turbidity currents on the outer shelf/upper continental slope. The seaward mobilization of the salt masses resulted in the oversteepening of the flanks of the basins, and consequently in the generation of numerous and massive sediment failures. The turbidity currents were confined on the intraslope basins of the upper continental slope, depositing their coarsest material. However, their most diluted upper and end members were able to continue their downslope propagation depositing characteristic fine-grained turbidites. The frequency of the turbidity currents was highly increased during the last glacial maximum (Stage 2), and three short melt-water pulses centered at 30.5, 36, and 52 ky B.P. The last deglaciation event is characterized by the development of a major melt water event that resulted in the deposition of distinct organic rich sediments, similar to the sapropels of the Eastern Mediterranean. At about 11 ky B.P. the melt water discharges of the North America switched from Mississippi River to St Lawrence Seaway, causing the domination of hemipelagic sedimentation on the continental slope of the northwest Gulf of Mexico.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第23862号 / 工博第4949号 / 新制||工||1773(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科都市社会工学専攻 / (主査)教授 角 哲也, 准教授 竹門 康弘, 准教授 Kantoush Sameh / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DFAM

Increasing turbidities due to land use changes and poor catchment management can cause negative impacts on estuaries worldwide. High turbidity has an impact on the biological functioning of estuaries which are amongst our most productive ecosystems. This study focuses on the St Lucia estuary on the east coast of South Africa, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and Ramsar wetland of international importance. Increased turbidity due to suspended inorganic sediments has been identified as an important threat to the sustainability of biodiversity in the St Lucia system. In order to determine the influence of increased cohesive sediment loads on the estuarine system it is necessary to understand how flocculation affects the fate and transport of cohesive sediment. Flocculation describes the processes of aggregate formation and breakup. Suspended sediment concentration, salinity and turbulent shear rates have been identified as key drivers of estuarine flocculation. This study investigates flocculation by measuring how the floc size distribution and settling velocities of flocs vary with the key drivers. A laboratory technique was developed where flocculation was simulated in an agitated beaker. Digital imaging techniques were used to measure changes in the size of flocs within the beaker and floc settling velocities in a still settling column. Results show reduced aggregation and floc size with increases in turbulent shear. Floc settling velocities were observed to increase with floc size while the effective density was observed to decrease. The study is concluded by investigating potential applications for the results obtained. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

<p>The number of species extinctions is increasing at an alarming rate. Long-lived freshwater mussels of the order Unionoida, which include a parasitic stage on a host fish, are highly threatened. Habitat degradation by turbidity and sedimentation is thought to be one major reason for their decline. The objective of this thesis was to examine recruitment patterns and identify the causes of the lack of recruitment in the threatened unionoid freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera). In addition, I investigated the effects of turbidity on non-endangered dreissenid mussels, where turbidity was manipulated through use of bioturbating mayflies.</p><p>In a survey of 107 Swedish streams, mussel population size and trout density were both positively correlated to recruitment probability of M. margaritifera. A more in-depth study of the age-structure of nine populations revealed that four of these populations showed no signs of recruitment over the last ten years. Within-stream variation in recruitment was high as both mussels and trout had patchy distribution, and may be important for population regulation. Moreover, examination of different life stages revealed no differences in the gravid mussel stage or the stage when mussels infect salmonid fish. Instead, differences were observed for the juvenile, benthic stage, presumably related to differences in turbidity and sedimentation. High turbidity may affect filter-feeding efficiency of mussels and high sedimentation may reduce survival by clogging sediments, thereby altering, for example, oxygen and food conditions. In the study of the effects of turbidity, bioturbating mayflies increased turbidity and filter-feeding dreissenid mussels reduced turbidity. Mussel growth both decreased and increased with increasing turbidity, depending on sediment type.</p><p>Turbidity and sedimentation often impact entire stream systems, and a holistic, catchment-based management strategy may be needed to reduce the effects of sedimentation on freshwater pearl mussels. The effects of restoration take a long time and must start soon if recruitment of mussels is to be re-established. Restoration may also be more urgent in some streams than in others, as the maximum age of M. margaritifera populations in my study differed by as much as 60 years. As mussel and trout densities seem to be important for recruitment success, one conservation method may be to concentrate mussels into sites where trout density is high.</p>

An incoherent CO₂ laser radar, or lidar, system using a tunable CO₂ TEA laser has been developed, along with analytical techniques to permit the determination of atmospheric transmittance and aerosol backscatter from multi-angle lidar returns. This work has been motivated by the need for a more complete knowledge of the optical properties of the atmosphere in the 9 to 11 μm spectral region. Results of preliminary observations are discussed. CO₂ lidar systems have been used before to measure backscatter and transmittance. Here, a new analytic method is developed, applicable to the 8-12 μm window region in conditions of high visibility, when the aerosol component of extinction is negligible compared to the molecular component. In such cases the backscatter sensed by the system is due to the atmospheric aerosol while atmospheric transmittance is determined by molecular species such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. It is not possible to assume a functional relationship between backscatter and extinction, as required by many previous analytic techniques. Therefore, a new solution technique based on a weighted, non-linear least squares fit applied to multi-zenith angle lidar returns has been developed. It is shown how constraints may be applied to rule out solutions which are unlikely on a priori grounds. An error analysis and a discussion of proper weighting techniques are presented. A CO₂ lidar system capable of acquiring multi-angle returns was developed, which included a gain-switching amplifier to compress the dynamic range of the return signal. The entire system is operated under computer control and data acquisition and storage are fully automated. A laser pulse energy monitor allows sequential returns to be averaged to reduce signal fluctuations. Preliminary observations with the system have demonstrated the capability of acquiring and averaging hundreds of returns on a routine basis. The return signal was observed to have fluctuations of 20 to 50% from shot to shot, due to atmospheric fluctuations. This result indicates signal averaging will be necessary to reduce signal fluctuations to levels where the multi-angle solution method may be applied.

Coastal erosion is caused by a deficit in the sediment balance along coastal shorelines. Within the intertidal waterway of Jacksonville, Florida, the primary processes acting on the shoreline are tidal currents and waves generated by winds and passing vessels. This study focuses on the analysis of vessel-generated waves and their possible effects on different shoreline types. The experiment conducted herein examines variations in turbidity related to passing boats at a specifically selected site location, at which different tidal stages expose three different shoreline types, a non-vegetated scarp, a vegetated scarp and a vegetated area with no scarp in the breaking zone. Statistical analyses were used to quantify relationships between turbidity and wave height within these three different shoreline types. It was determined that both wave heights and the type of shoreline can affect local turbidity levels. Shorelines that contained vegetation experienced significantly less turbidity, than shorelines with no vegetation. Based on the findings here, some preventative measures are suggested to reduce the erosion of intracoastal shorelines into the channel. This would most likely entail boating restrictions or some protective measures to shelter the intracoastal banks.