The increasing use of antibiotics has led to a huge problem for society, as some bacteria have developed resistance towards many of the antibiotics currently available. To help find solutions to this problem we studied small molecules that inhibit bacterial virulence, the ability to cause disease. The type III secretion system (T3SS) is a conserved virulence system found in several gram-negative bacteria, including human and plants pathogens, such as Yersinia spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Chlamydia spp., Salmonella spp., Shigella spp, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC), enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), and Erwinia spp. One class of virulence-blocking compounds is the salicylidene acylhydrazides. They were first identified in a screen towards the T3SS in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and have since been shown to block the T3SS in a panel of gram-negative bacteria such as Chlamydia spp. Salmonella enterica, Shigella flexneri and EPEC. We designed and synthesized a library of 58 salicylidene acylhydrazides and evaluated their activity as virulence-blocking compounds in Y. pseudotuberculosis followed by calculations of quantitative structure activity relationships (QSARs). Four QSAR models were calculated, and when used in consensus they correctly classified between five out of eight compounds for Y. pseudotuberculosis as active or inactive and six out of eight compounds for C. trachomatis. Since the target and mode of action of the salicylidene acylhydrazides were unknown, we used solution and solid phase synthesis to synthesize three different affinity reagents. One of these affinity reagents was used in affinity chromatography experiments, where 19 putative target proteins from an E. coli O157 bacterial lysate were identified. We studied four of the proteins, Tpx, WrbA, FolX, and AdhE, in more detail in Y. pseudotuberculosis and E. coli O157. We believe that the salicylidene acylhydrazides act on multiple targets that together result in down-regulation of T3SS functions. A knockout of AdhE in E. coli O157 showed a similar phenotype as salicylidene acylhydrazide treated E. coli, suggesting that this protein may be particularly interesting as a drug target. Many of the antibiotics used today originate form natural sources. In contrast, most virulence-blocking compounds towards the T3SS are small synthetic organic molecules. Therefore, a prefractionated natural product library with marine and terrestrial biota samples was screened towards the T3SS in Y. pseudotuberculosis. Neohopeaphenol A was identified as a hit and shown to have micromolar activity towards Y. pseudotuberculosis and P. aeruginosa in cell-based infection models. / Det ökande användandet av antibiotika har lett till stora problem för samhället. Många bakterier har utvecklat resistens mot de antibiotika som finns tillgängliga. För att försöka hitta en möjlig lösning på detta problem, arbetar vi med en strategi där vi med hjälp av små organiska molekyler inhiberar bakteriernas virulenssystem, deras förmåga att orsaka sjukdom. Traditionella antibiotika är antingen, bakteriocida, avdödande eller bakteriostatiska, tillväxthämmande. Bakteriernas enda sätt för att överleva antibiotikabehandlingen är att utveckla resistens. Forskarvärlden tror att molekyler som inhiberar bakteriernas virulenssystem, leder till ett minskat tryck att utveckla resistens mot dessa molekyler, eftersom de inte dödar eller hämmar bakterietillväxten, utan bara avväpnar bakterierna. Typ III sekretionssystemet är ett virulenssystem som finns i många gram-negativa bakterier, t.ex., Yersinia spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Chlamydia spp., Salmonella spp., Shigella spp, enteropatogena Escherichia coli (EPEC) och Erwinia spp. Salicylidenacylhydraziderna är en substansklass virulensblockare som inhiberar typ III sekretionssystemet i de ovan nämnda bakterierna. I denna avhandling har vi designat och syntetiserat ett bibliotek med 58 salicylidenacylhydrazider och utvärderat deras biologiska aktivitet som virulensblockare i Y. pseudotuberculosis. Vi relaterade den biologiska aktiviteten till de kemiska egenskaperna hos salicylidenacylhydraziderna i kvantitativa strukturaktivitetssamband. Med hjälp av dessa samband kunde vi prediktera och validera aktiviteten till aktiv eller inaktiv för fem av åtta nya salicylidenacylhydrazider i Y. pseudotuberculosis och sex av åtta i C. trachomatis. Eftersom verkningsmekanismen för salicylidenacylhydraziderna var okänd, så syntetiserade vi tre olika affinitetsmolekyler med kombinerad lösnings- och fastfas-syntes. En av affinitetsmolekylerna användes sedan för att ”fiska ut” och identifiera 19 potentiella målproteiner i ett bakterielysat från E. coli. Fyra av dessa proteiner, TpX, WrbA, FolX och AdhE har vi studerat vidare i Y. pseudotuberculosis och E. coli. Utifrån resultaten tror vi att salicylidenacylhydraziderna interagerar med flera proteiner som tillsammans resulterar i en nedreglering av type III sekretionssystemen. Vår samarbetspartner, Andrew Roe och hans forskargrupp (Universitetet i Glasgow), har studerat AdhE i E. coli.  De har visat att E. coli som saknar genen för proteinet AdhE, har samma fenotyp som E. coli behandlad med salicylidenacylhydraziderna, d.v.s. ett nedreglerat T3SS, vilket gör AdhE till ett speciellt intressant målprotein. I jämförelse med många av våra nuvarande antibiotika som har ett naturligt ursprung så är de flesta studerade virulensblockare små syntetiska organiska molekyler. Därför testades en stor kollektion av naturprodukter från marina och landlevande växter och invertebrater från Sydostasien, för att hitta nya inhibitorer mot typ III sekretionssystemet i Y. pseudotuberculosis. Neohopeaphenol A som kommer från barken på Hopea hainanensis, ett träd som växer i sydostasiens regnskogar, identifierades som en ny virulensblockare. Neohopeaphenol A visade sig vara en potent virulensblockare i in vitro infektionsförsök med Y. psudotuberkulosis eller Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Forskningen i denna avhandling visar att virulensblockare kan hjälpa oss att förstå hur bakterier orsakar sjukdom. Förhoppningsvis kan det i framtiden leda till nya typer av läkemedel mot infektionssjukdomar.

Le système de sécrétion de type III est présent chez plusieurs pathogènes à Gram négatif chez qui cette véritable nanomachine est impliquée dans le transport de molécules de virulence directement des bactéries vers le cytoplasme des cellules-cible. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, bactérie dont l'aiguille de sécrétion de type III est étudiée dans cette thèse, est responsable de nombreuses maladies nosocomiales ainsi que d'infections chez les patients atteints de mucoviscidose. Ce système de sécrétion est composé d'une base ancrée dans la double membrane bactérienne et d'une structure creuse en forme d'aiguille qui est un homopolymère d'une petite protéine.<br /><br />Dans le cytoplasme bactérien, la protéine PscF qui forme l'aiguille de type III chez P. aeruginosa est stabilisée avant sa sécrétion par 2 chaperonnes distinctes; PscE et PscG. Ceci est nécessaire à la fonctionnalité du système de sécrétion de type III.<br /><br />La structure cristallographique à 2.0A de résolution du complexe hétérotrimérique PscE:PscF55-85-PscG révèle que le domaine C-terminal de la protéine de l'aiguille PscF, impliqué dans le processus de polymérisation, est enfoui dans une cavité hydrophobe de la protéine PscG repliée de façon semblable à un domaine TPR. Ceci montre que le repliement macromoléculaire nécessaire pour stabiliser la protéine de l'aiguille de type III est différent de celui décrit chez le pilus de type IV et le flagelle. Les résidus qui précèdent l'hélice C-terminale de PscF sont maintenus dépliés par des interactions hydrophobes avec PscG. Ainsi, avant sa sécrétion, PscF est maintenue partiellement dépliée par ses chaperonnes. Elle transiterait ensuite sous forme partiellement dépliée à travers l'aiguille avant de se replier lors de sa polymérisation.<br /><br />La rupture des interactions spécifiques entre PscG et PscF entraîne une nette baisse de la cytotoxicité de la bactérie envers une lignée de macrophages, ce qui indique que cet hétérotrimère essentiel, qui possède des homologues chez une grande variété de pathogènes, est une cible thérapeutique attractive pour le développement de nouveaux médicaments.

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--University of South Florida, 2008. / Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Simple gel formulations may be applied to enhance the systemic and local exposure of potential compounds. The aim of this thesis is the development and characterization of controlled release formulations based on thermo-reversible poloxamer gels, which are suitable for novel drug delivery applications.  In particular co-solvents (DMSO, ethanol), mucoadhesive polymers (chitosan, alginate) and salts (sodium tripolyphosphate, CaCl2) have been used to enhance the applications of poloxamer 407 (P407) formulations in preclinical animal studies. The impact of these additives on the micellization and gelation properties of P407 aqueous solutions was studied by calorimetric methods, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and “tube inversion” experiments. The drug release behavior of hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs was characterized by using a membrane/membrane-free experimental setup. Finally, preliminary pharmacokinetic studies using a mouse model were conducted for screening of selected inhibitors of bacterial type III secretion and for evaluation of different formulations including P407 gel. All additives, used here, reduced the CMTs (critical micelle temperature) of dilute P407 solutions, with the exception of ethanol. The gelation temperature of concentrated P407 solutions was lowered in the presence of CaCl2, DMSO, TPP and alginate. 1H MAS (Magic Angle Spinning) NMR studies revealed that DMSO influences the hydrophobicity of the PPO segment of P407 polymers. Low concentrations of DMSO did not show any major effect on the drug release from P407 gels and may be used to improve the exposure of lead compounds in poloxamer gels. A newly developed in situ ionotropic gelation of chitosan in combination with TPP in P407 gels showed an enhanced resistance to water and reduced the release rates of model drugs. From preliminary pharmacokinetic studies in mice it was revealed that poloxamer formulations resulted in an increased plasma half-life of the lead compound.

The type III secretion system (T3SS) of pathogenic Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is involved in virulence. The syringe-like secretion system spans both bacterial membranes and is responsible for the ability of Yersinia to transfer toxic proteins (Yop proteins) into the eukaryotic target cell. The T3SS is believed to have evolved from the flagellum and regulation of the T3SS is a complex event that involves a series of regulatory proteins, whereby two are YscP and YscU. In a regulatory model, called the substrate specificity switch, both proteins act together to ensure proper T3SS structure and function by regulating a stop in YscF needle protein export with a shift to Yop effector secretion. YscU undergoes autoproteolysis at a conserved motif consisting of amino acids Asparagine-Proline-Threonine-Histidine (NPTH). Processing generates a C-terminal 10 kDa peptide, YscUCC. Processing is crucial for proper T3SS regulation and function both in vitro and in vivo. Full-length YscU does not support Yop secretion and after cleavage, YscUCC remains attached to the rest of YscU and acts as a negative block on T3S. Relief of this negative block is suggested to occur through displacement of YscUCC from the rest of YscU. Thorough control of many different cellular processes is brought by the heat shock proteins (HSPs) DnaK and DnaJ. Due to their multiple regulatory functions, mutations in the hsp-genes lead to pleiotropic effects. DnaK and DnaJ are essential for proper flagellum driven motion of bacteria, but more so; they ensure proper Yersinia T3SS function in vivo. Furthermore, DnaJ interacts with YscU and may be directly involved in T3SS regulation. Virulence of Yersinia is regulated on many levels. A previously identified virulence associated protein, VagH, is now characterized as an S-adenosyl-methionine dependent methyltransferase. The targets of the methylation activity of VagH are release factors 1 and 2 (RF1 and RF2), that are important for translation termination. The enzymatic activity of VagH is important for Yop secretion and a vagH mutant up-regulates a T3SS negative regulatory protein, YopD. Furthermore, a vagH mutant is avirulent in a mouse infection model, but is not affected in macrophage intracellular survival. The importance of VagH in vivo makes it a possible target for novel antimicrobial therapy.

Shigella flexneri attacks cells of the intestinal tract, causing over 1 million deaths annually from bacterial dysentery. A type III secretion system (T3SS) initiates the host-pathogen interaction and transports virulence factors directly into host cells via a needle complex (NC) comprising an extracellular needle and membrane-spanning basal body. Rings formed by the single-pass membrane proteins MxiG and MxiJ are arranged concentrically within the inner membrane ring (IMR) of the NC. The Neterminal domain of MxiG (MxiG-N) is the predominant IMR cytoplasmic structure, however it was structurally and functionally uncharacterised. Determination of the solution structure of MxiG-N in this study revealed it to be a forkhead associated (FHA) domain, although subsequent analyses of conserved residues suggested it does not have the canonical role in cell-signalling via phospho-threonine recognition. Subsequent positioning of the structure in the electron microscopy (EM) density for the S. flexneri NC supported models with 24-fold symmetry in the IMR. Both MxiG and MxiJ also have significant periplasmic domains, which were purified to homogeneity in this study, facilitating preliminary characterisation of their structures and intermolecular interactions. In addition, the entire IMR within the context of intact basal bodies was isolated and visualised in vitro by EM. The essential function of MxiG-N could be to localise the putative cytoplasmic ring (Cering) at the base of the T3SS. Although absolutely required for secretion, the Csring component, Spa33, was structurally uncharacterised. The crystal structure of the Cvterminal domain of Spa33 (Spa33-C) was determined in this study, showing an intertwined dimer that aligned with homologous structures and exhibited a novel interaction with the N-terminus of the ATPase regulator, MxiN. Subsequently, Spa33-C was identified as an altemative translation product of spa33 that formed a 2: 1 complex with Spa33 in vitro. This complex oligomerised further, demonstrating for the first time that Spa33 has the propensity to form the ordered, high molecular weight assemblies that would be required for C-ring formation in S. flexneri.

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium is a facultative intracellular pathogen that has evolved to take advantage of the eukaryotic host cells it inhabits during infection. It uses bacterial effectors translocated into the host cell cytosol to manipulate host cell machinery and establish a replicative niche. In this thesis I study the function of two of these effectors, SopD and SopB, which have been shown to act cooperatively to induce phenotypes associated with gastroenteritis (fluid secretion and neutrophil influx into the intestinal lumen). In addition to promoting gastroenteritis, SopD has also been implicated in systemic and persistent infection of mice. Although recently implicated in invasion, the precise function of SopD has remained elusive. Here I show that SopD affects membrane dynamics during S. Typhimurium invasion of epithelial cells. SopD promotes membrane sealing and macropinosome formation, events that may have important consequences for efficiency of bacterial cell entry in vivo. Furthermore, we demonstrate that SopD is recruited to the invasion site membranes through the phosphatase activity of SopB, suggesting a mechanism for their cooperative action during induction of gastroenteritis. Unlike SopD, SopB has been a focus of intense research efforts and its role in invasion as a phosphoinositide phosphatase is well documented. However, we have observed that SopB also inhibits fusion of lysosomes with Salmonella-containing vacuoles (SCVs) following invasion. This ability depends on SopB-mediated reduction of negative membrane charge of the SCV during invasion by hydrolysis of the phosphoinositide PI(4,5)P2. Membrane charge alterations driven by SopB result in removal of Rab GTPases from the SCV that depend on electrostatic interactions for their targeting. Two of these Rabs, Rab23 and Rab35 were previously shown to promote phagosome-lysosome fusion. Therefore their removal from the SCV may promote SCV trafficking away from the degradative endocytic pathway of host cells. This represents a new mechanism by which an invasion associated effector controls SCV maturation. Together, this work advances our knowledge of the interaction between S. Typhimurium and its host. This research also suggests a new mechanism by which pathogens other than S. Typhimurium could promote their intracellular survival.

Despite the large arsenal of antibiotics available on the market, treatment of bacterial infections becomes more challenging in view of the fact that microbes develop resistance against existing drugs. There is an obvious need for novel drugs acting on both old and new targets in bacteria. In this thesis we have employed a whole cell bacterial assay for screening and identification of type III secretion system (T3SS) inhibitors in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. The T3SS is a common virulence mechanism utilized by several clinically relevant Gram-negative bacteria including Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Chlamydiae and Escherichia coli. Several components in the T3SS have proved to be conserved and hence data generated with Y. pseudotuberculosis as model might also be valid for other bacterial species. We have screened a 9,400 commercial compound library for T3S inhibitors in Y. pseudotuberculosis using a yopE reporter gene assay. The initial ~ 30 hits were followed up in a growth inhibition assay resulting in 26 interesting compounds that were examined in more detail. Three of the most interesting compounds, salicylanilides, 2-hydroxybenzylidene-hydrazides and 2-arylsulfonamino-benzanilides, were selected for continued investigations. The inhibitor classes show different profiles regarding the effects on T3SS in Yersinia and their use as research tools and identification of the target proteins using a chemical biology approach will increase our understanding of bacterial virulence. The 2-hydroxybenzylidene-hydrazides have been extensively studied in vitro and show potential as selective T3S inhibitors in several Gram-negative pathogens besides Y. pseudotuberculosis. The data obtained suggest that this inhibitor class targets a conserved protein in the secretion apparatus. In cell-based ex vivo infection models T3SS was inhibited to the advantage of the infected eukaryotic cells. The salicylanilides and 2-arylsulfonamino-benzanilides have been further investigated by statistical molecular design (SMD) followed by synthesis and biological evaluation in the T3SS linked reporter gene assay. Multivariate QSAR models were established despite the challenges with data obtained from assays using viable bacteria. Our results indicate that this SMD QSAR strategy is powerful in development of virulence inhibitors targeting the T3SS.

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--University of South Florida, 2005. / Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 179-187). Also available online.

P. aeruginosa est un pathogène opportuniste capable d'infecter un large spectre d'hôtes. Elle possède un vaste arsenal de facteurs de virulence. Le système de sécrétion de type III (SSTT) est un facteur de virulence majeur dont la régulation est complexe pour permettre une adaptation la plus précise possible de la bactérie au cours de l'infection. Nous nous sommes intéressés à déterminer le rôle potentiel de nouveaux acteurs de l'adaptation de P.aeruginosa au cours de l'infection. La porine OprF qui représente la protéine la plus abondante de la membrane externe de P. aeruginosa lui permettrait d'évaluer l'état d'activation du système immunitaire de son hôte afin d'adapter sa virulence. Chez P. aeruginosa, le tryptophane est le précurseur des kynurenines qui sont également produites par l'hôte à partir du tryptophane et qui, dans ce dernier contexte, sont des immunomodulateurs. Peu ou pas d'études ont été réalisées pour mettre en œuvre un éventuel rôle d'immunomodulation ou dans la virulence des kynurénines bactériennes. Dans un premier temps, nous nous sommes intéressés à un signal anciennement découvert au laboratoire et qui réprime l'expression du SSTT à haute densité bactérienne. Nous avons montré que ce signal exerce une régulation post-transcriptionnelle en plus d'une inhibition de la transcription des gènes du SSTT. Le métabolisme du tryptophane et de l'anthranilate semble être au cœur de ce processus de régulation. En inactivant des voies du catabolisme du tryptophane, nous avons montré que la production de ce signal dépend partiellement de la voie des kynurénines mais ne dépend pas ni des voies classiques du quorum sensing ni de l'opéron phnAB, impliqué dans la synthèse de l'anthranilate. Cependant, la voie des phénazines pourrait être impliquée dans la production de ce signal. Par CLHP couplée à la spectrométrie de masse, nous avons pu séparer des espèces moléculaires réprimant le SSTT et qui sont contenues dans ce signal, mais l'identification précise nécessite plus d'investigations. Dans un second temps, nous nous sommes intéressés aux kynurénines produites par la bactérie. Nous avons confirmé que P. aeruginosa produit des kynurénines et le gène kynA est le gène clé de la voie de synthèse de ces métabolites. En utilisant des fusions transcriptionnnelles, nous avons montré que le tryptophane et la kynurénine régulent positivement la production des kynurénines en agissant sur l'expression des gènes clés. D'autres parts, nous avons remarqué que la bactérie module l'activité de la voie métabolique des kynurénines issue du tryptophane en fonction de son état de croissance. Nous avons montré qu'au cours du dialogue interrègne bactérie/hôte, la voie des kynurénines de P. aeruginosa est stimulée par certains composants du système immunitaire. Grâce à un modèle d'infection pulmonaire aiguë, nous avons prouvé que les kynurénines produites par la bactérie sont importantes pour sa virulence. Selon notre hypothèse les kynurénines pourraient avoir une action sur la réponse immune, mais cela reste à déterminer. Dans un troisième temps, nous nous somme focalisés sur la porine OprF. Nous avons montré que la mutation ∆oprF est à l'origine d'une altération de la production mais vraisemblablement pas de la sécrétion des exotoxines du SSTT. Un ligand connu d'OprF, l'interféron gamma, module la voie des kynurénines. OprF pourrait donc avoir un rôle central dans les différents aspects de la régulation de la virulence. Nous avons donc produit des anticorps monoclonaux anti-OprF. Ces derniers se sont révélés capables de reconnaître spécifiquement la protéine OprF. Afin de vérifier l'efficacité de ces anticorps, des expériences de neutralisation de la bactérie in vitro puis in vivo seront réalisées. Mots clés : Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Système de Sécrétion de Type III, régulation, catabolisme du tryptophane, kynurénines, OprF. / P. aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen capable of infecting a wide host range. It possesses a large arsenal of virulence factors. The type III secretion system (TTSS) is a major virulence factor whose regulation is complex to allow the most accurate adaptation of the bacteria during infection. We were interested to determine the potential role of new actors in the adaptation of P. aeruginosa during infection. OprF represents the most abundant protein of the outer membrane of P. aeruginosa. This protein allows bacteria to assess the activation status of the host's immune system to adapt its virulence. In P. aeruginosa, tryptophan is the precursor of kynurenines that are also produced by the host from tryptophan and in the latter context, are immunomodulators. Little or no studies have been done to determine a possible role of bacterial kynurenines in immune modulation or virulence. Initially, we were interested in a signal previously discovered in the laboratory and which suppresses the expression of TTSS at high bacterial density. We have shown that this signal exerts a post-transcriptional regulation in addition to inhibition of TTSS genes transcription. The metabolism of tryptophan and anthranilate appears to be at the heart of this regulatory process. By inactivating pathways of tryptophan catabolism, we showed that production of this signal depends partly on the kynurenines pathway but does not depend neither classical ways of quorum sensing or phnAB operon involved in the synthesis of anthranilate. However, the phenazines pathway could be involved in the production of this signal. By HPLC coupled with mass spectrometry, we were able to separate molecular species suppressing the TTSS and which are contained in this signal, but accurate identification requires further investigation. In a second time, we were interested to kynurenines produced by the bacterium. We confirmed that P. aeruginosa produces kynurenines and KynA is the key gene in the synthesis of these metabolites. We showed that tryptophan and kynurenine upregulate the production of kynurenines by acting on the expression of key genes. Other shares, we found that the bacterium modulates the activity of the kynurenines pathway depending on its state of growth. We showed that during the dialogue bacteria / host, the pathway of kynurenines in P. aeruginosa is stimulated by certain immune system components. With an acute lung infection model, we proved that kynurenines produced by the bacterium are important to its virulence. We hypothesized that the kynurenines could have an effect on the immune response, but this remains to be determined. In a third time, we focused on the protein OprF. We showed that mutation ΔoprF is causing an alteration in production but probably not the secretion of TTSS exotoxins. One known ligand of OprF is the gamma interferon. It modulates the pathway of kynurenines. OprF could therefore have a central role in various aspects of the regulation of virulence. So, we produced monoclonal anti-OprF which recognizes specifically the protein OprF. To verify the effectiveness of these antibodies, neutralization experiments of the bacteria in vitro and in vivo will be realized.