Background: Endurance running is known to be a prevalent sport, due to well-understood health benefits. Ultramarathon running, particularly in master athletes, has been increasingly popular. Various parameters of an individual's ability to participate in numerous such events have been explored. The performance trends of such seasoned runners have been of interest to identify trends that could influence participation and running career longevity. Aim To identify performance trends of seasoned ultramarathon runners across their Two Oceans Ultramarathon running careers. Specific Objectives The specific objectives were to 1) describe the profile of seasoned ultramarathon runners who have completed 20 or more Two Oceans Ultramarathon races, including sex, number of ultramarathons completed, medal category of peak performance and age at debut Two Oceans Ultramarathon; 2) to determine average performance, peak performance, worst performance and the pattern of improvement or decline in performance in seasoned ultramarathon runners over 20 years of race participation; 3) to determine differences in factors that may influence performance trends, such as sex, number of ultramarathons completed, medal category of peak performance and age at debut Two Oceans Ultramarathon; and 4) to determine the variation in ultramarathon performance based on the sex, number of ultramarathons completed, medal category of peak performance and age at debut Two Oceans Ultramarathon. Methods Data from 625 runners who completed 20 or more Two Oceans Ultramarathons were extracted from a publicly available website (www.twooceansmarathon.org). Finish times across their running careers were used to establish average race speeds, peak and worst performances, changes in performance over time, and coefficients of variation in performance. Groups were compared according to a) sex, b) number of Two Oceans Ultramarathons completed (20 or more than 20), c) age category of debut race, and d) medal category of peak performance. Results The finishing times and race speed results showed that males ran significantly faster than females across their 20 year Two Oceans Ultramarathon running careers (p=0.00001). Runners who completed more than 20 races had faster finishing times and race paces than those who ran 20 Two Oceans Ultramarathons (p=0.00001). When performances of the participants were analysed according to age categories, the youngest age group, namely 16-19, had the fastest average finishing times across 20 years of racing (p=0.00002). Peak and worst performances showed that best personal efforts were attained in the first quarter of the Two Oceans Ultramarathon career, and worst race performances toward the end of these running careers. It was observed that as running careers progressed over time, the groups compared showed a pattern of performance convergence as differences in finishing times and running speeds decreased. Discussion and Conclusion The findings of this study suggest that a decline in performance over time is a natural and inevitable progression of a running career. Peak performances are usually acquired within the first few years of running careers. Participation trends as well as improved performances of master runners has shown that advanced age may be favourable in successful long-term ultramarathon running. This study identified a unique cohort of athletes who have consistently maintained ultramarathon running for 20 or more years. There is an opportunity for more detailed investigation of factors contributing to the longevity of their running careers, with the goal of promoting continuity in endurance running participation and physical activity at large.

The purpose of this study was to accomplish three major objectives: to quantitatively understand the applicability of an existing list of characteristics of mental toughness to a population of ultramarathon runners, to establish a new definition of mental toughness specific to ultra runners, and to conduct interviews to understand experiences, examples, and development of mental toughness. A mixed-methods approach was utilized with online surveys and semi-structured interviews. Participants were ultramarathon runners who had completed at least one organized ultramarathon event of 50 miles or more, all of whom were at least 18 years of age. The online survey yielded 408 completed questionnaires and 476 definitions of mental toughness in ultramarathon running. The online survey consisted of an open-ended question on defining mental toughness, and a list of 30 characteristics of mental toughness from Jones and colleagues' (2007) mental toughness study on elite athletes. The survey utilized a 5-point Likert scale, and a Basic Demographic Questionnaire in addition to questions relevant to running experience. The existing characteristics represented limited applicability to the population of ultramarathon runners, with most prevalent attributes on drive towards success, goal attainment, learning from failure, and coping under pressure. In the 476 definitions of mental toughness, the most prominent themes were persistence, perseverance, utilization of psychological skills, and adapting to environmental and duration-related obstacles. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 randomly selected ultramarathon runners. Interviews were designed to verify a raw definition of mental toughness in ultramarathon runners, identify traits of mentally tough ultra runners, understand experiences and examples of mental toughness, and understand how mental toughness could be developed. Grounded theory was utilized to isolate themes; many factors emerged and were categorized based on research questions. The definition of mental toughness was supported with the addition of an emotional and perceptual component. Traits of mentally tough runners supported the traits found in the definitions of mental toughness. Experiences and examples of mental toughness included situations of using psychological skills and witnessing a runner overcome adversity. Lastly, development of mental toughness was most highlighted in social aspects of the ultra culture and experiences both in running and in life. / Kinesiology

Please read the abstract in the section 00front of this document / Thesis (DPhil (Medical Immunology))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Immunology / unrestricted

Wir untersuchten den Einfluss eines 100 Meilen Ultramarathonlaufes auf die Herzfrequenz und die Herzratenvariabilität. Zusätzlich evaluierten wir den Gebrauch dieser Parameter als nicht invasive Methode zur Beurteilung des Erholungszustandes des Sportlers. Dafür untersuchten wir freiwillige Läufer sieben Tage vor, unmittelbar danach und nach siebentägiger Erholung mithilfe eines Langzeit- EKGs. Es zeigte sich in unserer Untersuchung ein Anstieg der Ruheherzfrequenz und ein Abfall der Herzratenvariabilität unmittelbar nach dem Lauf. Nach siebentägiger Erholung ist die Ruheherzfrequenz nahezu zu den Ausgangswerten zurückgekehrt, wohin gegen eine siebentägige Erholung nicht ausreichte, um eine Rückkehr der Herzratenvariabilitätsparameter zu verzeichnen. Dies lässt uns schlussfolgern, dass der Einsatz der Parameter zur Beurteilung des Erholungszustandes der Athleten geeignet ist, jedoch keine Vorhersagen zur Wahrscheinlichkeit der Absolvierung eines solchen Laufes, oder der Laufzeit machbar sind.:1. Einleitung 1.1 Adaptation des Körpers an den Ausdauersport 1.2 Adaptation des Herzens an den Ausdauersports 1.3 Leistungsdiagnostik und Trainingsüberwachung durch Messung der Herzratenvariabilität 1.4 Durchführung 2. Puplikationsmanuskript 2.1 Abstract 2.2 Background 2.3 Methods 2.4 Results 2.5 Discussion 2.6 Study Limitations, Conclusion, Acknowledgments, Fundings 2.7 Abbreviations 2.8 References 2.9 Tables and Graphs 3. Zusammenfassung 4. Literaturverzeichnis 5. Anlagen Spezifizierung des eigenen wissenschaftlichen Beitrags Danksagung

Sammanfattning   Syfte och frågeställningar Syftet med denna studie var att sammanställa kvalitet på och resultat av studier som undersökt om långdistanslöpning ger artros i höft-, knä- eller fotleder. Finns det vetenskaplig evidens för att långdistanslöpning ger artros i höft-, knä- eller fotleder? Vilka styrkor och svagheter har de studier som försökt utröna om samband finns mellan långdistanslöpning och artros i höft-, knä- eller fotleder?   Metod Sökning av litteratur utfördes i PubMed, CINAHL, Cochrane Library och PEDro. Detta resulterade i att tio artiklar inkluderades för närmare granskning och sammanställning. Utifrån artiklarnas sammantagna bevisvärde poängsattes och graderades artiklarna efter evidensnivå enligt Statens Beredning för medicinsk Utvärderings (SBU) granskningsmallar för kohortstudier med kontrollgrupper.   Resultat Endast en av tio studier visar ett positivt samband mellan långdistanslöpning och artros i höft-, knä- eller fotleder, i detta fall höftledsartros. Studierna har ingen tydlig och gemensam definition över vad långdistanslöpning är. De granskade studierna använder sig av olika mätmetoder för att bedöma leddegenerationen, både av självrapportering och av olika diagnostiska kriterier för artros. Alla studier har inslag av selektionsbias.   Slutsats En indikation på att det inte finns ett vetenskapligt stöd för att långdistanslöpning ger höft-, knä- eller fotledsartros hos människor. Studierna har brister i hantering av confounders och selektionsbias och bedöms vara av låg eller medelhög kvalitet. / Abstract   Aim The purpose of this study was to compile the quality and results of studies that examined if long-distance running gives osteoarthritis of the hip, knee or ankle joints. Is there scientific evidence that long-distance running gives osteoarthritis of the hip, knee or ankle? What strengths and weaknesses of the studies attempted to determine if the link between long-distance running and osteoarthritis of the hip, knee or ankle joints.   Method Search of the literature was performed in PubMed, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, and PEDro. This resulted in ten articles that were included for further review and compilation. Based on the articles combined probative value was scored and graded articles for level of evidence according to the National Council on Technology Evaluation (SBU) examination templates for cohort studies with control groups.   Results Only one of the ten studies showed a positive association between long distance running and osteoarthritis of the hip, knee or ankle joints, in this case hip joint. The studies have not a clear and common definition of what long-distance running is. The studies reviewed use different metrics to assess joint degeneration, both by self-report and of different diagnostic criteria for osteoarthritis. All studies have an element of selection bias.   Conclusion An indication that there is no scientific evidence that long-distance running gives hip, knee or ankle osteoarthritis in humans. The studies were inadequate handling of confounders and selection bias and judged to be of low or medium quality.