When animals are stressed they use a trait called social support to alleviate their stress responses. With domestication many traits from the ancestor red junglefowl have changed in the domesticated breed white leghorn. White leghorns are bred to be able to live in large groups where it becomes hard to recognize every chicken. They are therefore not as dependent of familiar stimuli birds for social support as red junglefowl. Our hypotheses were that red jungle males would be more interested in unfamiliar stimuli birds than white leghorn male before stress due to their territoriality. We tested total 56 chickens in an open field test. The test arena was divided in three zones and the time the focal birds spent in each zone was recorded. The focal bird was recorded in 300 seconds before being stressed by being suspended in a net and then recorded again in 300 seconds. The results showed that social support and social behaviour differs between females and males for both breeds. No significant differences were found between the breeds. There was a tendency for significant of breed (P=0.08) effects in the central zone unstressed. The two interactions before stressed between breed and sex, central zone (P<0.01) and unfamiliar zone (P<0.01) had significant effects. We observed fights between white leghorn males and familiar stimuli. Waltzing did also occur in red jungle males in front of unfamiliar. In conclusion, numeric differences can be seen but not large enough to be significant and our hypotheses are not confirmed.

The objective of this research is to determine the longitudinal stress in rails by using the polarization of Rayleigh waves. Analytical models are developed to describe the effect of applied stress on wave speed and on the polarization of Rayleigh waves. A numerical simulation is performed to find the effect of applied stress on wave velocity and Rayleigh wave polarization. The effect of uncertainties in material properties on wave velocity and polarization of Rayleigh wave is also examined in the simulation. The experiment uses a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) to measure the particle velocities. The in-plane and out-of-plane velocity components are obtained from the measured particle velocities. The polarization of Rayleigh wave, which is defined as the ratio between the in-plane and out-of-plane displacements, is calculated. Furthermore, the polarization of the Rayleigh wave is considered as a measure to identify applied stress. The experiment is performed on unstressed and stressed rail specimen. Thus, Rayleigh wave polarization is obtained as a function of applied stress. The experimental results are compared with the analytical model. The result shows a good agreement with the theoretical values for unstressed rail.

Este trabalho buscou investigar o fenômeno de elevação das vogais médias átonas finais no português brasileiro do século XIX a partir de dois tipos de dados empíricos: a evidência direta e a evidência indireta. Entendem-se como evidência direta as declarações de gramáticos, ortoepistas e elocucionistas por fornecerem evidências diretas sobre o estado linguístico de uma língua (BEAL, 2012). Consideram-se evidência indireta os textos, de qualquer tipo, produzidos por falantes/escritores por estes fornecerem indícios sobre o estado linguístico de uma língua (BEAL, 2012). A presente pesquisa utilizou obras metalinguísticas e didáticas como fontes de evidência direta e correspondências redigidas no século XIX como fontes de evidência indireta. Os resultados da análise de evidência indireta (registros escritos) não permitiram verificar se o fenômeno de elevação das vogais médias átonas finais atuava no português brasileiro oitocentista em virtude de não haver dados suficientes para esboçar algum julgamento. No entanto, com relação aos resultados da análise das fontes de evidência direta (obras metalinguísticas e didáticas), estes permitiram constatar que o referido fenômeno atua no português europeu desde o século XVIII, e no português brasileiro, desde o século XIX. A partir dos resultados da presente pesquisa, pode-se afirmar que o processo de elevação das vogais /e/ e /o/ não é um fenômeno exclusivo do português brasileiro atual. / This paper investigated the Brazilian Portuguese final unstressed mid-vowels heightening through two kinds of empirical data: direct evidence and indirect evidence. Direct evidence consists of the statements of grammarians, orthoepists and elocutionists because they provide intentionally evidence about the state of the language (BEAL, 2012). Indirect evidence is the texts of various kinds produced by the speaker/writer who provides unconsciously evidence on the state of the language (BEAL, 2012). This research collected metalinguistic and didactic books published from 16th century to 19th as direct evidence sources and letters written during the 19th century as indirect evidence sources. The results of the analysis of indirect evidence (written texts) did not allow to verify if the heightening of the unstressed final mid-vowels occurred in Brazilian Portuguese of the 19th century on account of not having sufficient data to outline a judgement. However, in relation to the results of the analysis of direct evidence (metalinguistic and didactic books), they allowed to prove that the heightening has happened in European Portuguese since 18th century and in Brazilian Portuguese since 19th century. From the results of this paper, it is possible to state that the heightening of the final unstressed vowels /e/ and /o/ are not an exclusive phenomenon of the Brazilian Portuguese nowadays.

Este trabalho buscou investigar o fenômeno de elevação das vogais médias átonas finais no português brasileiro do século XIX a partir de dois tipos de dados empíricos: a evidência direta e a evidência indireta. Entendem-se como evidência direta as declarações de gramáticos, ortoepistas e elocucionistas por fornecerem evidências diretas sobre o estado linguístico de uma língua (BEAL, 2012). Consideram-se evidência indireta os textos, de qualquer tipo, produzidos por falantes/escritores por estes fornecerem indícios sobre o estado linguístico de uma língua (BEAL, 2012). A presente pesquisa utilizou obras metalinguísticas e didáticas como fontes de evidência direta e correspondências redigidas no século XIX como fontes de evidência indireta. Os resultados da análise de evidência indireta (registros escritos) não permitiram verificar se o fenômeno de elevação das vogais médias átonas finais atuava no português brasileiro oitocentista em virtude de não haver dados suficientes para esboçar algum julgamento. No entanto, com relação aos resultados da análise das fontes de evidência direta (obras metalinguísticas e didáticas), estes permitiram constatar que o referido fenômeno atua no português europeu desde o século XVIII, e no português brasileiro, desde o século XIX. A partir dos resultados da presente pesquisa, pode-se afirmar que o processo de elevação das vogais /e/ e /o/ não é um fenômeno exclusivo do português brasileiro atual. / This paper investigated the Brazilian Portuguese final unstressed mid-vowels heightening through two kinds of empirical data: direct evidence and indirect evidence. Direct evidence consists of the statements of grammarians, orthoepists and elocutionists because they provide intentionally evidence about the state of the language (BEAL, 2012). Indirect evidence is the texts of various kinds produced by the speaker/writer who provides unconsciously evidence on the state of the language (BEAL, 2012). This research collected metalinguistic and didactic books published from 16th century to 19th as direct evidence sources and letters written during the 19th century as indirect evidence sources. The results of the analysis of indirect evidence (written texts) did not allow to verify if the heightening of the unstressed final mid-vowels occurred in Brazilian Portuguese of the 19th century on account of not having sufficient data to outline a judgement. However, in relation to the results of the analysis of direct evidence (metalinguistic and didactic books), they allowed to prove that the heightening has happened in European Portuguese since 18th century and in Brazilian Portuguese since 19th century. From the results of this paper, it is possible to state that the heightening of the final unstressed vowels /e/ and /o/ are not an exclusive phenomenon of the Brazilian Portuguese nowadays.

Este trabalho buscou investigar o fenômeno de elevação das vogais médias átonas finais no português brasileiro do século XIX a partir de dois tipos de dados empíricos: a evidência direta e a evidência indireta. Entendem-se como evidência direta as declarações de gramáticos, ortoepistas e elocucionistas por fornecerem evidências diretas sobre o estado linguístico de uma língua (BEAL, 2012). Consideram-se evidência indireta os textos, de qualquer tipo, produzidos por falantes/escritores por estes fornecerem indícios sobre o estado linguístico de uma língua (BEAL, 2012). A presente pesquisa utilizou obras metalinguísticas e didáticas como fontes de evidência direta e correspondências redigidas no século XIX como fontes de evidência indireta. Os resultados da análise de evidência indireta (registros escritos) não permitiram verificar se o fenômeno de elevação das vogais médias átonas finais atuava no português brasileiro oitocentista em virtude de não haver dados suficientes para esboçar algum julgamento. No entanto, com relação aos resultados da análise das fontes de evidência direta (obras metalinguísticas e didáticas), estes permitiram constatar que o referido fenômeno atua no português europeu desde o século XVIII, e no português brasileiro, desde o século XIX. A partir dos resultados da presente pesquisa, pode-se afirmar que o processo de elevação das vogais /e/ e /o/ não é um fenômeno exclusivo do português brasileiro atual. / This paper investigated the Brazilian Portuguese final unstressed mid-vowels heightening through two kinds of empirical data: direct evidence and indirect evidence. Direct evidence consists of the statements of grammarians, orthoepists and elocutionists because they provide intentionally evidence about the state of the language (BEAL, 2012). Indirect evidence is the texts of various kinds produced by the speaker/writer who provides unconsciously evidence on the state of the language (BEAL, 2012). This research collected metalinguistic and didactic books published from 16th century to 19th as direct evidence sources and letters written during the 19th century as indirect evidence sources. The results of the analysis of indirect evidence (written texts) did not allow to verify if the heightening of the unstressed final mid-vowels occurred in Brazilian Portuguese of the 19th century on account of not having sufficient data to outline a judgement. However, in relation to the results of the analysis of direct evidence (metalinguistic and didactic books), they allowed to prove that the heightening has happened in European Portuguese since 18th century and in Brazilian Portuguese since 19th century. From the results of this paper, it is possible to state that the heightening of the final unstressed vowels /e/ and /o/ are not an exclusive phenomenon of the Brazilian Portuguese nowadays.

Através desta pesquisa, investigamos efeitos de atrito linguístico (influência da L2 sobre a L1), a partir da produção da vogal átona final /e/ por porto-alegrenses (RS, Brasil), aprendizes de Espanhol como Segunda Língua (L2). Com este propósito, analisamos a produção desta vogal em ambas as línguas dos aprendizes, verificando, mais especificamente, seus padrões acústicos (os valores de F1 e F2, que dizem respeito à altura e à anterioridade da língua, respectivamente, bem como os valores de duração absoluta e relativa) em comparação à produção de monolíngues de Espanhol (variedade de Montevidéu/Uruguai) e de Português Brasileiro (variedade de Porto Alegre – RS/Brasil). Portanto, contamos com três grupos distintos de participantes: (a) um grupo de monolíngues falantes de Espanhol (Grupo Controle 1); (b) um grupo de monolíngues do Português Brasileiro, nativos da grande Porto Alegre/RS (Grupo Controle 2); e (c) um grupo de aprendizes avançados de Espanhol como L2 (Grupo Experimental). Levantamos as seguintes hipóteses de pesquisa: (i) haverá diferença significativa nos valores das frequências formânticas (F1 e F2) e no padrão duracional das produções vocálicas entre as línguas dos bilíngues (Português/L1 e Espanhol/L2), sendo que a vogal /e/ em Espanhol/L2 será mais baixa (menor F1 – em Bark), mais anterior (menor F2 – em Bark) e mais longa (duração absoluta e relativa) do que em Português/L1 (CÂMARA Jr., 1970; CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; VIEIRA, 2002; BISOL, 2003; BATTISTI & VIEIRA, 2005; REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA, 2011; SILVA, 2012; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; PEREYRON, 2017); (ii) não haverá diferença significativa, no que diz respeito aos padrões acústicos de F1, F2 e duração (absoluta e relativa), entre a vogal átona final /e/ do Espanhol, produzida pelos bilíngues de nível avançado na L2, e a produzida pelos monolíngues de Espanhol; e (iii) haverá diferença significativa entre os valores de F1, de F2, de duração absoluta e de duração relativa entre a vogal átona final /e/ do PB produzida pelos bilíngues e a sua contraparte produzida pelos monolíngues de PB, pois a vogal átona final /e/ dos bilíngues será mais baixa (menor F1), mais anterior (menor F2) e mais longa do que a dos monolíngues de PB (CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; SILVA, 2012; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; PEREYRON, 2017; SCHERECHEWSKY, ALVES, KUPSKE, no prelo). Os dados foram obtidos através de Tarefas de Leitura, nas quais foi solicitado que o participante lesse, em voz alta, 24 frases-veículo que continham os estímulos a serem analisados. Os grupos de monolíngues realizaram apenas a Tarefa de Leitura correspondente à sua Língua Materna (L1), e o grupo de aprendizes realizou uma Tarefa de Leitura em cada língua (Português e Espanhol). Os resultados indicaram que os bilíngues distinguem, em suas produções, a vogal átona final /e/ entre a L1 (Português) e a L2 (Espanhol), embora não tenham desenvolvido o padrão acústico de altura e anterioridade/posterioridade na L2. Além disso, em relação à L1, as produções vocálicas dos bilíngues, estatisticamente, não se diferenciam das dos monolíngues de PB. Entretanto, individualmente, alguns bilíngues apontam sinais de atrito linguístico em altura e anterioridade/posterioridade vocálica. Portanto, a partir das análises dos sistemas de Língua Materna (L1) e Segunda Língua (L2) do grupo de aprendizes, discutimos o que nossos resultados podem sugerir sobre a dinamicidade nas produções dos bilíngues e a possibilidade de atrito linguístico em ambiente de L2 não-dominante, partindo da concepção de Língua como um Sistema Adaptativo Complexo (cf. GONÇALVES et al., 1995; BECKNER et al., 2009; ALBANO, 2012). / In this study, we investigate the occurrence of language attrition (L2-L1 influence) in the production of the word-final unstressed vowel /e/ by speakers from the city of Porto Alegre (RS, Brazil), learners of Spanish as a Second Language (L2). Departing from this goal, we analyze this vowel in the two language systems produced by these learners. We verify their acoustic patterns (F1 and F2, as well as absolute and relative durations) in comparison to the vowels produced by Brazilian Portuguese monolinguals (from the city of Porto Alegre - Brazil) and Spanish monolinguals (from the city of Montevideo – Uruguay). Therefore, three groups of participants took part in this study: (a) Spanish monolinguals (Control Group 1); (b) Brazilian Portuguese monolinguals (Control Group 2); and (c) a group of Brazilian learners of Spanish showing an advanced level of proficiency (Experimental Group). We hypothesize that (i) there will be significant differences in F1, F2 and (absolute and relative) durational values between the two languages of the bilingual participants (L1: Portuguese, L2: Spanish), as the final vowel /e/ in L2 Spanish will be lower (lower F1 Bark value), more fronted (lower F2 Bark value) and longer (both in absolute and relative values) than in L1 Portuguese (CÂMARA Jr., 1970; CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; VIEIRA, 2002; BISOL, 2003; BATTISTI & VIEIRA, 2005; REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA, 2011; SILVA, 2012; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; PEREYRON, 2017); (ii) there will not be significant differences in the production of word-final unstressed /e/ in Spanish, in terms of formant frequencies (F1 and F2 values) and duration (absolute and relative values), between the productions by the L2 leaners and the native speakers of Spanish; (iii) there will be significant differences, in terms of formant frequencies (F1 and F2 values) and duration (absolute and relative values), in the productions in Brazilian Portuguese by monolinguals and L2 leaners of Spanish, as the vowels produced by the latter will be lower (lower F1 value), more fronted (lower F2 value) and longer than those produced by the monolinguals (CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; SILVA, 2012; PEREYRON, 2017; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; SCHERECHEWSKY, ALVES, KUPSKE, in press). The data were collected through a reading task, in which participants were asked to read 24 carrier sentences with the target words. The two Control Groups sat for one of the tasks only, while the L2 learners took part in both tasks (Portuguese and Spanish). Our results show that the L2 leaners are able to produce a difference between Brazilian Portuguese (L1) /e/ and Spanish (L2) /e/, even though the target L2 pattern has not been fully developed. As for the L1 productions, significant differences between monolinguals and bilinguals have not been found. However, when analyzed individually, some learners show some signs of language attrition in their F1 and F2 values. This considered, by analyzing these participants’ L1 and L2 systems individually, we discuss the possibility of language attrition in an L2 non-dominant environment, as we provide support to a view of language as a Complex, Adaptive System.

Através desta pesquisa, investigamos efeitos de atrito linguístico (influência da L2 sobre a L1), a partir da produção da vogal átona final /e/ por porto-alegrenses (RS, Brasil), aprendizes de Espanhol como Segunda Língua (L2). Com este propósito, analisamos a produção desta vogal em ambas as línguas dos aprendizes, verificando, mais especificamente, seus padrões acústicos (os valores de F1 e F2, que dizem respeito à altura e à anterioridade da língua, respectivamente, bem como os valores de duração absoluta e relativa) em comparação à produção de monolíngues de Espanhol (variedade de Montevidéu/Uruguai) e de Português Brasileiro (variedade de Porto Alegre – RS/Brasil). Portanto, contamos com três grupos distintos de participantes: (a) um grupo de monolíngues falantes de Espanhol (Grupo Controle 1); (b) um grupo de monolíngues do Português Brasileiro, nativos da grande Porto Alegre/RS (Grupo Controle 2); e (c) um grupo de aprendizes avançados de Espanhol como L2 (Grupo Experimental). Levantamos as seguintes hipóteses de pesquisa: (i) haverá diferença significativa nos valores das frequências formânticas (F1 e F2) e no padrão duracional das produções vocálicas entre as línguas dos bilíngues (Português/L1 e Espanhol/L2), sendo que a vogal /e/ em Espanhol/L2 será mais baixa (menor F1 – em Bark), mais anterior (menor F2 – em Bark) e mais longa (duração absoluta e relativa) do que em Português/L1 (CÂMARA Jr., 1970; CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; VIEIRA, 2002; BISOL, 2003; BATTISTI & VIEIRA, 2005; REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA, 2011; SILVA, 2012; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; PEREYRON, 2017); (ii) não haverá diferença significativa, no que diz respeito aos padrões acústicos de F1, F2 e duração (absoluta e relativa), entre a vogal átona final /e/ do Espanhol, produzida pelos bilíngues de nível avançado na L2, e a produzida pelos monolíngues de Espanhol; e (iii) haverá diferença significativa entre os valores de F1, de F2, de duração absoluta e de duração relativa entre a vogal átona final /e/ do PB produzida pelos bilíngues e a sua contraparte produzida pelos monolíngues de PB, pois a vogal átona final /e/ dos bilíngues será mais baixa (menor F1), mais anterior (menor F2) e mais longa do que a dos monolíngues de PB (CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; SILVA, 2012; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; PEREYRON, 2017; SCHERECHEWSKY, ALVES, KUPSKE, no prelo). Os dados foram obtidos através de Tarefas de Leitura, nas quais foi solicitado que o participante lesse, em voz alta, 24 frases-veículo que continham os estímulos a serem analisados. Os grupos de monolíngues realizaram apenas a Tarefa de Leitura correspondente à sua Língua Materna (L1), e o grupo de aprendizes realizou uma Tarefa de Leitura em cada língua (Português e Espanhol). Os resultados indicaram que os bilíngues distinguem, em suas produções, a vogal átona final /e/ entre a L1 (Português) e a L2 (Espanhol), embora não tenham desenvolvido o padrão acústico de altura e anterioridade/posterioridade na L2. Além disso, em relação à L1, as produções vocálicas dos bilíngues, estatisticamente, não se diferenciam das dos monolíngues de PB. Entretanto, individualmente, alguns bilíngues apontam sinais de atrito linguístico em altura e anterioridade/posterioridade vocálica. Portanto, a partir das análises dos sistemas de Língua Materna (L1) e Segunda Língua (L2) do grupo de aprendizes, discutimos o que nossos resultados podem sugerir sobre a dinamicidade nas produções dos bilíngues e a possibilidade de atrito linguístico em ambiente de L2 não-dominante, partindo da concepção de Língua como um Sistema Adaptativo Complexo (cf. GONÇALVES et al., 1995; BECKNER et al., 2009; ALBANO, 2012). / In this study, we investigate the occurrence of language attrition (L2-L1 influence) in the production of the word-final unstressed vowel /e/ by speakers from the city of Porto Alegre (RS, Brazil), learners of Spanish as a Second Language (L2). Departing from this goal, we analyze this vowel in the two language systems produced by these learners. We verify their acoustic patterns (F1 and F2, as well as absolute and relative durations) in comparison to the vowels produced by Brazilian Portuguese monolinguals (from the city of Porto Alegre - Brazil) and Spanish monolinguals (from the city of Montevideo – Uruguay). Therefore, three groups of participants took part in this study: (a) Spanish monolinguals (Control Group 1); (b) Brazilian Portuguese monolinguals (Control Group 2); and (c) a group of Brazilian learners of Spanish showing an advanced level of proficiency (Experimental Group). We hypothesize that (i) there will be significant differences in F1, F2 and (absolute and relative) durational values between the two languages of the bilingual participants (L1: Portuguese, L2: Spanish), as the final vowel /e/ in L2 Spanish will be lower (lower F1 Bark value), more fronted (lower F2 Bark value) and longer (both in absolute and relative values) than in L1 Portuguese (CÂMARA Jr., 1970; CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; VIEIRA, 2002; BISOL, 2003; BATTISTI & VIEIRA, 2005; REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA, 2011; SILVA, 2012; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; PEREYRON, 2017); (ii) there will not be significant differences in the production of word-final unstressed /e/ in Spanish, in terms of formant frequencies (F1 and F2 values) and duration (absolute and relative values), between the productions by the L2 leaners and the native speakers of Spanish; (iii) there will be significant differences, in terms of formant frequencies (F1 and F2 values) and duration (absolute and relative values), in the productions in Brazilian Portuguese by monolinguals and L2 leaners of Spanish, as the vowels produced by the latter will be lower (lower F1 value), more fronted (lower F2 value) and longer than those produced by the monolinguals (CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; SILVA, 2012; PEREYRON, 2017; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; SCHERECHEWSKY, ALVES, KUPSKE, in press). The data were collected through a reading task, in which participants were asked to read 24 carrier sentences with the target words. The two Control Groups sat for one of the tasks only, while the L2 learners took part in both tasks (Portuguese and Spanish). Our results show that the L2 leaners are able to produce a difference between Brazilian Portuguese (L1) /e/ and Spanish (L2) /e/, even though the target L2 pattern has not been fully developed. As for the L1 productions, significant differences between monolinguals and bilinguals have not been found. However, when analyzed individually, some learners show some signs of language attrition in their F1 and F2 values. This considered, by analyzing these participants’ L1 and L2 systems individually, we discuss the possibility of language attrition in an L2 non-dominant environment, as we provide support to a view of language as a Complex, Adaptive System.

Através desta pesquisa, investigamos efeitos de atrito linguístico (influência da L2 sobre a L1), a partir da produção da vogal átona final /e/ por porto-alegrenses (RS, Brasil), aprendizes de Espanhol como Segunda Língua (L2). Com este propósito, analisamos a produção desta vogal em ambas as línguas dos aprendizes, verificando, mais especificamente, seus padrões acústicos (os valores de F1 e F2, que dizem respeito à altura e à anterioridade da língua, respectivamente, bem como os valores de duração absoluta e relativa) em comparação à produção de monolíngues de Espanhol (variedade de Montevidéu/Uruguai) e de Português Brasileiro (variedade de Porto Alegre – RS/Brasil). Portanto, contamos com três grupos distintos de participantes: (a) um grupo de monolíngues falantes de Espanhol (Grupo Controle 1); (b) um grupo de monolíngues do Português Brasileiro, nativos da grande Porto Alegre/RS (Grupo Controle 2); e (c) um grupo de aprendizes avançados de Espanhol como L2 (Grupo Experimental). Levantamos as seguintes hipóteses de pesquisa: (i) haverá diferença significativa nos valores das frequências formânticas (F1 e F2) e no padrão duracional das produções vocálicas entre as línguas dos bilíngues (Português/L1 e Espanhol/L2), sendo que a vogal /e/ em Espanhol/L2 será mais baixa (menor F1 – em Bark), mais anterior (menor F2 – em Bark) e mais longa (duração absoluta e relativa) do que em Português/L1 (CÂMARA Jr., 1970; CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; VIEIRA, 2002; BISOL, 2003; BATTISTI & VIEIRA, 2005; REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA, 2011; SILVA, 2012; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; PEREYRON, 2017); (ii) não haverá diferença significativa, no que diz respeito aos padrões acústicos de F1, F2 e duração (absoluta e relativa), entre a vogal átona final /e/ do Espanhol, produzida pelos bilíngues de nível avançado na L2, e a produzida pelos monolíngues de Espanhol; e (iii) haverá diferença significativa entre os valores de F1, de F2, de duração absoluta e de duração relativa entre a vogal átona final /e/ do PB produzida pelos bilíngues e a sua contraparte produzida pelos monolíngues de PB, pois a vogal átona final /e/ dos bilíngues será mais baixa (menor F1), mais anterior (menor F2) e mais longa do que a dos monolíngues de PB (CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; SILVA, 2012; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; PEREYRON, 2017; SCHERECHEWSKY, ALVES, KUPSKE, no prelo). Os dados foram obtidos através de Tarefas de Leitura, nas quais foi solicitado que o participante lesse, em voz alta, 24 frases-veículo que continham os estímulos a serem analisados. Os grupos de monolíngues realizaram apenas a Tarefa de Leitura correspondente à sua Língua Materna (L1), e o grupo de aprendizes realizou uma Tarefa de Leitura em cada língua (Português e Espanhol). Os resultados indicaram que os bilíngues distinguem, em suas produções, a vogal átona final /e/ entre a L1 (Português) e a L2 (Espanhol), embora não tenham desenvolvido o padrão acústico de altura e anterioridade/posterioridade na L2. Além disso, em relação à L1, as produções vocálicas dos bilíngues, estatisticamente, não se diferenciam das dos monolíngues de PB. Entretanto, individualmente, alguns bilíngues apontam sinais de atrito linguístico em altura e anterioridade/posterioridade vocálica. Portanto, a partir das análises dos sistemas de Língua Materna (L1) e Segunda Língua (L2) do grupo de aprendizes, discutimos o que nossos resultados podem sugerir sobre a dinamicidade nas produções dos bilíngues e a possibilidade de atrito linguístico em ambiente de L2 não-dominante, partindo da concepção de Língua como um Sistema Adaptativo Complexo (cf. GONÇALVES et al., 1995; BECKNER et al., 2009; ALBANO, 2012). / In this study, we investigate the occurrence of language attrition (L2-L1 influence) in the production of the word-final unstressed vowel /e/ by speakers from the city of Porto Alegre (RS, Brazil), learners of Spanish as a Second Language (L2). Departing from this goal, we analyze this vowel in the two language systems produced by these learners. We verify their acoustic patterns (F1 and F2, as well as absolute and relative durations) in comparison to the vowels produced by Brazilian Portuguese monolinguals (from the city of Porto Alegre - Brazil) and Spanish monolinguals (from the city of Montevideo – Uruguay). Therefore, three groups of participants took part in this study: (a) Spanish monolinguals (Control Group 1); (b) Brazilian Portuguese monolinguals (Control Group 2); and (c) a group of Brazilian learners of Spanish showing an advanced level of proficiency (Experimental Group). We hypothesize that (i) there will be significant differences in F1, F2 and (absolute and relative) durational values between the two languages of the bilingual participants (L1: Portuguese, L2: Spanish), as the final vowel /e/ in L2 Spanish will be lower (lower F1 Bark value), more fronted (lower F2 Bark value) and longer (both in absolute and relative values) than in L1 Portuguese (CÂMARA Jr., 1970; CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; VIEIRA, 2002; BISOL, 2003; BATTISTI & VIEIRA, 2005; REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA, 2011; SILVA, 2012; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; PEREYRON, 2017); (ii) there will not be significant differences in the production of word-final unstressed /e/ in Spanish, in terms of formant frequencies (F1 and F2 values) and duration (absolute and relative values), between the productions by the L2 leaners and the native speakers of Spanish; (iii) there will be significant differences, in terms of formant frequencies (F1 and F2 values) and duration (absolute and relative values), in the productions in Brazilian Portuguese by monolinguals and L2 leaners of Spanish, as the vowels produced by the latter will be lower (lower F1 value), more fronted (lower F2 value) and longer than those produced by the monolinguals (CALLOU, MORAES, LEITE, 1996, 2002; SILVA, 2012; PEREYRON, 2017; SANTOS, RAUBER, 2016; SCHERECHEWSKY, ALVES, KUPSKE, in press). The data were collected through a reading task, in which participants were asked to read 24 carrier sentences with the target words. The two Control Groups sat for one of the tasks only, while the L2 learners took part in both tasks (Portuguese and Spanish). Our results show that the L2 leaners are able to produce a difference between Brazilian Portuguese (L1) /e/ and Spanish (L2) /e/, even though the target L2 pattern has not been fully developed. As for the L1 productions, significant differences between monolinguals and bilinguals have not been found. However, when analyzed individually, some learners show some signs of language attrition in their F1 and F2 values. This considered, by analyzing these participants’ L1 and L2 systems individually, we discuss the possibility of language attrition in an L2 non-dominant environment, as we provide support to a view of language as a Complex, Adaptive System.

Ph.D., Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, 2011 / Deep-level gold mining in the Witwatersrand Basin Goldfields (WBG) of central South Africa is characterised by the production of extensive unlined tailings storage facilities (TSFs) comprising large quantities of pulverised rock and water contaminated with salts and a wide range of other inorganic pollutants (Weiersbye et al., 2006). There are more than 200 such TSFs covering a total area of more than 400 km2 (Rosner et al., 2001), and significant contaminated “footprint” areas occur after removal and reprocessing of the original TSFs (Chevrel et al., 2003). It is estimated that the Witwatersrand Basin contains six billion tons of gold and uranium tailings (Chevrel et al., 2003), 430 000 tons of uranium (Council of Geoscience, 1998; Winde, 2004a; b; c) and approximately 30 million tons of sulphur (Witkowski and Weiersbye, 1998a). An estimated 105 million tons of waste per annum is generated by the gold mining industry within the WBG (Department of Tourism, Economic and Environmental Affairs, 2002; Chamber of Mines of South Africa, 2004). A major environmental problem resulting from deep level mining in the WBG is the contaminated water that seeps from TSFs into adjacent lands and groundwater. Van As (1992) reported on the significant environmental hazards resulting from the storage of highly pulverised pyrite rock waste in TSFs (Straker et al., 2007). Adjacent lands become polluted through near-surface seepage, and this is enhanced by the movement of polluted groundwater in shallow aquifers that are commonly 1-30 m below ground (Funke, 1990; Hodgson et al., 2001; Rosner et al., 2001; Naicker et al., 2003). The impact of the mines and the TSFs extends far beyond their localities (Cogho et al., 1990). The Vaal River catchment receives a large proportion of the pollutants from WBG mining activities, with consequent acidification and salinisation of surface and ground waters. Salt discharges to the Vaal River were estimated to be 170 000 t/annum (Best, 1985), whereas discharges from the Free State gold mines south of the Vaal catchment were estimated at 350 000 t/annum of salts (Cogho et al., 1990). Concern also exists over the spread of dangerous contaminants such as uranium, chromium and mercury (Coetzee et al., 2006; Winde, 2009). Engineering solutions to these problems are hindered by the large sizes and great extent of TSFs, the high and indefinite costs involved, and the typically low hydraulic conductivity in affected aquifers, which makes the “pump and treat” option impractical. An alternative phytoremediation strategy is to establish belts or blocks of trees in strategic areas surrounding the TSFs in order to reduce the seepage of contaminated water into adjacent lands and groundwater bodies. The major reasons why trees are likely to have a greater impact on seepage water than the existing grasslands that characterise the area around most TSFs in the WBG, are that some tree species have the potential to develop very deep root systems and to continue transpiring water throughout the year. This is in contrast to seasonally dormant grasslands. In addition, some tree species are known to be tolerant to salts and other pollutants. Trees are thus potentially able to reach deep water tables, take up large quantities of water, and remove some of the pollutants in this water. It is crucial for a successful implementation of this strategy to know on what sites trees are able to access mine seepage water, and consequently maintain a high year-round rate of water use. If this access is limited, then growth and water use will be curtailed during the long winter dry season, and control of seepage will be considerably below potential. A primary aim of this study was to develop methodologies to discriminate between water-stressed and non-water-stressed trees currently growing in three gold mining districts (Welkom, Vaal River, West Wits) within the WBG. This information was required to assess what site types are likely to support adequate tree growth and permit high rates of water use and seepage control. The tree species selected were those most widely occurring in these areas, and include the non-native species Eucalyptus sideroxylon A. Cunningham ex Woolls and Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnhardt, as well as the indigenous species Searsia lancea L.f. Various remote sensing technologies including leaf-level spectroscopy, satellite and airborne remote sensing images were evaluated for their usefulness in detecting levels of winter-time water stress. Four commonly used ground-truthing techniques (predawn leaf water potential, leaf chlorophyll fluorescence, leaf chlorophyll and carotenoid pigment content, and leaf water content) were used for localised measurements of plant water stress and for ground-truthing of remotely sensed data on 75 sample sites and 15 sample sites. This study provided a unique opportunity to test and compare the use of stress reflectance models derived from different remote sensing data acquired at different spatial and spectral resolutions (i.e. multispectral and hyperspectral) for the same geographical location. The use of remote sensing to examine the spectral responses of vegetation to plant stress has been widely described in the scientific literature. A collation of published spectral reflectance indices provided the basis for investigating the use of hand-held remote sensing technology to detect plant water stress, and was used as a stepping stone to further develop spectral plant water stress relationships for specific tree species in this study. Seventy seven spectral reflectance indices and specific individual spectral wavelengths useful for detecting plant water stress, plant pigment content, the presence of stress related pigments in vegetation, and changes in leaf cellular structure, were investigated using hand-held spectroscopy. Ground-based measurements of plant water stress were taken on 75 sample trees. In this study, the measurement of predawn leaf water potential has been identified as a key methodology for linking remotely sensed assessments of plant water stress to actual plant water stress; a reading of -0.8 MPa was used to separate stressed trees from unstressed trees in the landscape (Cleary and Zaerr, 1984). The results of the predawn leaf water potential measurements ranged from -0.56 to -0.68 MPa at unstressed sites, and from -0.93 to -1.78 MPa at stressed sites. A novel approach of using spectral reflectance indices derived from previous studies was used to identify specific indices which are applicable to South Africa and to the three species investigated in the WGB. Maximal multiple linear regression models were derived for all possible combinations of plant water stress measurements and the 77 spectral reflectance indices extracted from leaf-level spectral reflectance data, and included the interactions of district and species. The results of the multiple linear regression models indicated that the (695/690) index, DATT index (850-710)/(850-680), near infra-red index (710/760) and the water band (900/970) index performed well and accounted for more than 50% of the variance in the data. The stepwise regression model derived between chlorophyll b content and the DATT index was selected as the “best” model, having the highest adjusted R2 of 69.3%. This was shown to be the most robust model in this application, which could be used at different locations for different species to predict chlorophyll content at the leaf-level. Satellite earth observation data were acquired from two data sources for this investigation; the Hyperion hyperspectral sensor (United States Geological Survey Earth Resources Observation Systems) and the Proba Chris pseudo-hyperspectral sensor (European Space Agency). The Hyperion sensor was selected to obtain high spatial and spectral resolution data, whereas the Proba Chris sensor provided high spatial and medium spectral resolution earth observation data. Twelve vegetation indices designed to capture changes in canopy water status, plant pigment content and changes in plant cellular structure, were selected and derived from the satellite remote sensing imagery. Ground-based measurements of plant water stress undertaken during late July 2004 were used for ground-truthing the Hyperion image, while measurements undertaken during July 2005 and August 2005 were used for ground-truthing the Proba Chris images. Predawn leaf water potential measurements undertaken for the three species, ranged from -0.42 to -0.78 MPa at unstressed sites, and -0.95 to -4.66 MPa at stressed sites. Predawn leaf water potentials measured for E. camaldulensis trees sampled in species trials in Vaal River were significantly different between stressed and non stressed trees (t = 3.39, 8df, P = 0.009). In contrast, E. camaldulensis trees sampled near a pan within the Welkom mining district, which had greater access to water but were exposed to higher concentrations of salts and inorganic contaminants, displayed differences in total chlorophyll content (t = -2.20, 8df, P = 0.059), carotenoid content (t = -5.68, 8df, P < 0.001) and predawn leaf water potential (t = 4.25, 8df, P = 0.011) when compared to trees sampled on farmland. E. sideroxylon trees sampled close to a farm dam in the West Wits mining district displayed differences in predawn leaf water potential (t = 69.32, 8df, P < 0.001) and carotenoid content (t = -2.13, 8df, P = 0.066) when compared to stressed trees further upslope away from the water source. Multiple linear regressions revealed that the predawn leaf water potential greenness normalised difference vegetation index model, and the predawn leaf water potential water band index model were the “best” surrogate measures of plant water stress when using broad band multispectral satellite and narrow-band hyperspectral satellite data respectively. It was concluded from these investigations that vegetation indices designed to capture changes in plant water content/plant water status and spectral changes in the red edge region of the spectrum, performed well when applied to high spectral resolution remote sensing data. The greenness normalised difference vegetation index was considered to be a fairly robust index, which was highly correlated to chlorophyll fluorescence and predawn leaf water potential. It is recommended that this index has the potential to be used to map spatial patterns of winter-time plant stress for different genera/species and in different geographical locations. Airborne remote sensing surveys were conducted to investigate the application of high spatial resolution remote sensing data to detect plant water stress. Multispectral airborne imagery was acquired by Land Resource International (PTY) Ltd, South Africa. Ground-based measurements of plant water stress were carried out during July and August 2005.Four individual spectral bands and two vegetation spectral reflectance indices, which are sensitive to changes in plant pigment content, were derived from the processed multispectral images viz. red, green, blue and near-infrared spectral bands and the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) and greenness normalised difference vegetation index (GNDVI).The results of the multispectral airborne study revealed that carotenoid content together with the green spectral waveband resulted in the “best” surrogate measure of plant water stress when using broad-band multispectral airborne data. Airborne remote sensing surveys were conducted by Bar-Kal Systems Engineering Ltd, Israel, to investigate the application of hyperspectral airborne imagery to detect plant water stress. Six vegetation spectral reflectance indices designed to capture changes in plant pigment and plant water status/content, were derived from the processed hyperspectral images. When using airborne hyperspectral data, predawn leaf water potential with the normalized difference water index was selected as the most appropriate model. It was concluded, upon evaluation of the multiple linear regression models, that the airborne hyperspectral data produced several more regression models with higher adjusted R2 values (Ra2 range 6.2 - 76.2%) when compared to the airborne multispectral data (Ra2 range 6 - 50.1). Exploration of relationships between vegetation indices derived from leaf-level, satellite and airborne spectral reflectance data and ground-based measurements used as “surrogate” measures of plant water stress, revealed that several prominent and recurring spectral reflectance indices could be applied to identify species-specific plant water stress within the Welkom, Vaal River and West Wits mining districts. The models recommended for mapping and detecting spatial patterns of plant water stress when using different sources of remote sensing data are as follows: the chlorophyll b DATT spectral reflectance model when derived from leaf-level spectral reflectance data, can be applied across all three mining districts the predawn leaf water potential GNDVI spectral reflectance model and predawn leaf water potential water band index spectral reflectance model when utilising satellite multispectral and hyperspectral remote sensing data carotenoid content green band spectral reflectance model can be used for airborne multispectral resolution data predawn leaf water potential NDVI spectral reflectance model is best suited for airborne high spatial and hyperspectral resolution data. These results indicate that measurements of predawn leaf water potential and plant pigment content have been identified as key methodologies for ground-truthing of remotely sensed data and can be used as surrogate measures of plant water stress. Some preliminary research was undertaken to evaluate if wood anatomy characteristics could be used as a non-destructive and rapid low-cost survey approach for identifying trees which are experiencing long-term plant stress. Seventy two wood core samples were extracted and analysed. Predawn leaf water potential measurements were used to classify stressed and unstressed trees. Relative differences in radial vessel diameter, vessel frequency and wood density were examined. Comparison of the radial vessel diameter and vessel frequency measurements revealed significant differences in three of the five comparative sampling sites (p <0.05). The results of the density analyses were significantly different for all five comparative sampling sites (p < 0.01). In general, trees experiencing higher plant water stress displayed smaller vessel diameters, compared to less stressed or healthy trees. Sites which were influenced by high levels of contaminated water also displayed smaller vessel diameters, indicating that the uptake of contaminants could affect the wood anatomy of plants. Trees considered to be experiencing higher plant water stress displayed higher vessel frequency. This preliminary study showed that plant stress does influence the wood anatomical characteristics (radial vessel diameter, vessel frequency and wood density) in E. camaldulensis, E. sideroxylon and S. lancea in the three mining districts. Spatial patterns of trees, mapped in the three gold mining districts, Welkom (27º57´S, 26º34´E) in the Free State Province, Vaal River (26º55´S, 26º40´E) located in the North West Province, and West Wits (26º25´S, 27º21´E) located in Gauteng, which were not experiencing winter-time water stress were correlated to site characteristics such as average soil depth, percent clay in the topsoil, groundwater chloride and sulphate concentrations, total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity and groundwater water level. The spectral reflectance model derived between predawn leaf water potential and the green normalised difference vegetation index using broad-band multispectral Proba Chris satellite data was used to map spatial patterns of unstressed trees across the three mining districts. Very high resolution (75 cm) multispectral airborne images acquired by LRI in 2005 were used to demarcate and classify vegetation using the maximum likelihood supervised classification technique. Interpolated surfaces of groundwater chloride and sulphate concentrations, total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, pH and groundwater table levels were created using the kriging geostatistical interpolation technique for each mining district. Random sample analyses between stressed and unstressed trees were extracted in order to determine whether site characteristics were significantly different (using t-tests). Site characteristic surfaces which were significantly different from stressed areas were spatially linked to trees which were not experiencing winter-time plant water stress for each tree species investigated in each mining district. This spatial correlation was used to make recommendations and prioritise sites for the establishment of future block plantings. Analysis of the site characteristic data and the geophysical surveys undertaken in the three mining districts which provided detailed information on groundwater saturation and an indication of the salinity conditions, confirmed the presence of relatively shallow and saline groundwater sources. This would imply that tree roots could access the relatively shallow groundwater even during the dry winter season and assist in containing contaminated groundwater seeping into surrounding lands. Keywords : airborne imagery, ground-based measurements of plant water stress, hyperspectral, leaf-level spectroscopy, multispectral, satellite imagery, spatial patterns of unstressed trees, spectral reflectance indices

Submitted by Aline Batista (alinehb.ufpel@gmail.com) on 2017-06-08T15:25:06Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Dissertação - Fernanda Peres Lopes.pdf: 3142979 bytes, checksum: 5720a00dae8803fe8625b52b9c76c001 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Aline Batista (alinehb.ufpel@gmail.com) on 2017-06-09T14:37:22Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Fernanda Peres Lopes.pdf: 3142979 bytes, checksum: 5720a00dae8803fe8625b52b9c76c001 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-09T14:37:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Fernanda Peres Lopes.pdf: 3142979 bytes, checksum: 5720a00dae8803fe8625b52b9c76c001 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-24 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Este estudo tem por objetivo analisar o processo variável de apagamento das vogais átonas [a, i, u] em posição final na fala de indivíduos da cidade de Pelotas (RS), conforme verificado em tarif[a] ~ tarif∅, equip[e] ~ equip∅, serviço ~ serviç∅, por exemplo. Para isso, partiu-se dos pressupostos da Fonologia de Uso (BYBEE, 2001, 2006, 2010), da Teoria de Exemplares (PIERREHUMBERT, 2001, 2003) e da Sociofonética (THOMAS, 2011; FOULKES; SCOBBIE; WATT, 2010). A amostra sob análise é constituída por oito informantes (quatro homens e quatro mulheres) entre 18 e 50 anos de idade e de dois níveis de escolaridade – sujeitos com até seis anos de escolaridade e sujeitos com, no mínimo, nove anos de escolaridade. A taxa de aplicação do apagamento na amostra analisada foi de 53% (N = 242) para a vogal [i], de 41% (N = 196) para a vogal [u] e de 0,8% (N = 4) para a vogal [a]. Os resultados indicaram que fatores como tipo de vogal, contexto precedente, ordem de produção e frequência lexical favorecem o apagamento, revelando a natureza predominantemente linguística do fenômeno. A única variável extralinguística que teve influência no apagamento foi a variável indivíduo. A análise acústica revelou que as vogais postônicas [i] e [u] produzidas pelos pelotenses tendem a abaixar enquanto a vogal [a] tende a elevar-se. Além disso, percebe-se uma centralização de [u], que ocupa, entre os homens, quase o mesmo espaço acústico que a vogal [a]. [ɐ], [ɪ] e [ʊ] são as vogais que representam o sistema encontrado na amostra. Com relação à duração, comparando-se os valores encontrados com os dados de Quintanilha-Azevedo (2016), percebe-se que tanto homens quanto mulheres produziram vogais mais curtas. Por fim, conclui-se que o apagamento representa o ponto final de uma trajetória que se inicia com a realização plena da vogal, passa pela redução de sua duração e pelo seu desvozeamento. / This thesis aims to analyze the variable process of deletion of the final unstressed vowels [a, i, u] by Brazilian Portuguese native speakers from the city of Pelotas, in the Southern state of Rio Grande do Sul, as noticed in words such as tarif[a] ~ tarif∅, equip[e] ~ equip∅, serviço ~ serviç∅, for instance. In order to achieve said aim, the concepts addressed by Usage-Based Phonology (BYBEE, 2001, 2006, 2010), the Exemplar Theory (PIERREHUMBERT, 2001, 2003) and Sociophonetics (THOMAS, 2011; FOULKES; SCOBBIE; WATT, 2010) were used as this research project's theoretical bases. The sample analyzed in this study consists of 8 informants (4 men and 4 women) from two different educational backgrounds (one group including subjects with up to 6 years of formal learning and the other including subjects with 9+ years of formal learning) with ages ranging from eighteen to fifty. The rate of deletion in the sample was of 53% (N = 242) for the vowel [i], of 41% (N = 196) for the vowel [u], and of 0,8% (N = 4) for the vowel [a]. The results indicate that such factors as type of vowel, preceding context, vowel production order and lexical frequency favor deletion, revealing the predominantly linguistic nature of the phenomenon. The variable "subject" was the only extralinguistic variable to influence deletion. Acoustic analysis showed that the posttonic vowels [i] and [u] produced by the subjects tend to lower as the vowel [a] tends to rise. In addition, the study also revealed a centralization of [u], which occupies among men almost the same acoustic vowel space as does the vowel [a]. Vowels [ɐ], [ɪ] and [ʊ] are representative of the system found in the sample. Regarding duration, when comparing the values included in this research project with those presented by Quintanilha-Azevedo (2016), it can be noticed that both men and women produced shorter vowels. Lastly, it was found that deletion represents the final stage of a process that begins with the production of a full-quality vowel, moves on to its reduction, and ultimately reaches the devoicing of said vowel.