In this study, membranes were made from three polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) polymers individually and the blend systems of high (H) and low (L) molecular weight PVDF by phase inversion process. After investigating membrane casting solutions’ viscous and thermodynamic properties, the membranes so fabricated were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, gas permeation tests, porosity measurement, contact angle (CA) and liquid entry pressure of water (LEPw) measurement, and further subjected to vacuum membrane distillation (VMD) in a scenario that was applicable for cooling processes, where the feed water temperature was maintained at 27℃. It was found that PVDF solutions’ viscosities and thermodynamic instabilities were determined by the types of PVDF employed in single polymer systems and the mixing ratios of two PVDF polymers in blend systems. Thus the membrane properties and performances were influenced by the aforesaid factors as well. In single polymer systems, it was found that the membrane surface roughness and porosity increased with an increase in molecular weight. Among all the membranes casted in this study, the water vapor flux of VMD was found to be the highest at the intermediate range of H:L ratio, i.e., 4:6, at which the thickness of the sponge-like layer showed a minimum, the finger-like macro-voids formed a more orderly single-layer structure, and the LEPw showed a minimum. A conclusion can be made that blend systems of high molecular weight PVDF polymers and low molecular weight PVDF polymers could be used to optimize membrane performance in vacuum membrane distillation.

Neste trabalho, estudou-se o impacto de dois pré-tratamentos: ultrassom, pulso de vácuo e a combinação de ultrassom seguido de pulso de vácuo, sobre a cinética de secagem da banana verde a (50 e 60) °C. Na secagem a 50 °C constatou-se que, a aplicação de uma única técnica foi mais favorável que a combinação dos pré-tratamentos (20 min de ultrassom, seguido de 60 min de pulso de vácuo), sendo que os melhores resultados foram obtidos com 20 min de ultrassom na potência volumétrica ultrassônica de (9,38 ± 0,60) W/L. Os valores da difusividade efetiva da água, da primeira e segunda fases de taxa decrecente foram de (7,03 ± 0,09 e 3,84 ± 0,09) × 10-9 m2/s para (12,10 ± 0,47 e 6,84 ± 0,28) × 10-9 m2/s, respectivamente, com a aplicação do ultrassom por 20 min. Na secagem a 60 °C, para a primeira fase de taxa decrescente, o pré-tratamento de 25 min de ultrassom resultou mais favorável. Já para a segunda fase de taxa decrescente o pré-tratamento com 25 min de ultrassom e a técnica combinada (25 min de ultrassom, seguido de 60 min de pulso de vácuo) foram os mais eficientes. Desta forma, a hipótese inicial de que micro-canais gerados pelo ultrassom e o gradiente de pressão nos pulsos de vácuo promoveriam maior migração de umidade não foi comprovada. A 60 °C, o aumento dos valores de difusividade efetiva de água, em relação aos ensaios sem prétratamento, foram menores se comparados aos aumentos obtidos nos ensaios a 50 °C. Consequentemente, a 60 °C, o efeito da temperatura prevaleceu, e os efeitos causados pelos pré-tratamentos foram menos evidentes em relação aos ensaios a 50 °C. O modelo de Midilli resultou no melhor modelo para o ajuste dos dados experimentais de secagem com r2>=0,999, RMSE<=0,0119 e ?2<=0,00012. O processo aplicando 20 min de ultrassom na potência volumétrica ultrassônica de (9,38 ± 0,60) W/L e temperatura de secagem de 50 °C diminuiu 30 min o tempo de secagem. A economia do custo de energia sob essas condição iria de (1,12 para 1,05) R$/kg de matéria-prima processada. Embora, uma redução da quantidade de energia necessária para a gelatinização foi observada, devido a aplicação do ultrassom por 20 min e secagem a 50 °C, não foi observada redução significativa do teor de amido resistente, assim, a principal característica da farinha de banana verde, por causa de seu efeito positivo sobre a saúde humana, foi preservada. Constatou-se que, aplicação de 20 min de ultrassom (9,38 ± 0,60) W/L em rodelas imersas em água (hidratadas) ou embaladas a vácuo (não hidratadas) não influenciou significativamente os valores de difusividade efetiva da água, o conteúdo de AR, nem a formação dos micro-canais. Os efeitos do ultrassom foram evidentes independentemente do ganho de água, acontecido devido à imersão das rodelas de banana verde em água. / In this work, the impact of two pre-treatments: ultrasound, pulsed-vacuum and the combination of ultrasound followed by pulsed-vacuum, on the drying kinetics of unripe banana at (50 and 60) ° C were studied. For air-drying at 50 °C, the application of a single technique was more favorable for water migration than the combination of pre-treatments (20 min of ultrasound, followed by 60 min of pulsed-vacuum); the best results were observed with ultrasound for 20 min at ultrasonic volumetric power of (9.38 ± 0.60) W/L. For this condition, the values of effective water diffusivity for the first and second phases of decreasing rate were (7.03 ± 0.09 and 3.84 ± 0.09) × 10-9 m2/s to (12.10 ± 0.47 and 6.84 ± 0.28) × 10-9 m2/s, respectively. At 60 °C, for the first phase of decreasing rate, 25 min of ultrasound resulted more favorable, whereas, for the second phase of decreasing rate, ultrasound for 25 min and the combined technique (25 min ultrasound, followed by 60 min pulsed-vacuum) resulted favorable. Thus, the initial hypothesis that micro-channels from ultrasound pre-treatment and pressure gradient from pulsed-vacuum pre-treatment would help moisture migration was not observed. At 60 °C, the increase of the values of effective water diffusivity were lower than those obtained at 50 °C. Consequently, at 60 °C, the effect of temperature prevailed, and the effects caused by pretreatments were less evident with respect to the assays at 50 °C. The Midilli model was the best model for adjusting the experimental drying data with r2>=0.999, RMSE<= 0.0119 and x2<=0.00012. The process applying 20 min of ultrasound at ultrasonic volumetric power of (9.38 ± 0.60) W/L and air-drying at 50 °C saved 30 min of air-drying time. The economy of energy cost under these conditions would represent a value from (1.12 to 1.05) R$/kg of processed raw material. Although a reduction in the amount of energy required for gelatinization was observed due to the application of ultrasound for 20 min and air-drying temperature at 50 °C, no significant reduction of resistant starch content was observed; thus, the main characteristic of unripe banana flour, because of its positive effect on human health, was preserved. It was verified that the application of 20 min of ultrasound (9.38 ± 0.60) W/L in unripe banana slices, immersed in water (hydrated) or vacuum-packed (non-hydrated), did not influence significantly the values of effective water diffusivity, resistant starch content and the formation of micro-channels. The effects of ultrasound were evident independent of water gain, which occurs due to the immersion of unripe banana slices into water.

A demanda por energia fotovoltaica vem aumentando a razão de mais de 20% ao ano no mercado internacional nos últimos dez anos. O silício com pureza entre 99,999% e 99,99999% é utilizado na fabricação de células fotovoltaicas. O silício metalúrgico tem pureza entre 98,5% e 99%. Este estudo visa investigar o refino a vácuo como um processo alternativo de menor custo para se obter o silício para células fotovoltaicas. Este processo pode remover o fósforo do silício, que é um dos elementos prejudiciais à célula fotovoltaica. Isso permitiria agregar valor à produção brasileira de silício metalúrgico, que alcança um preço de aproximadamente US$2,5 por quilo, enquanto o silício para células fotovoltaicas varia entre US$20 e 60 por quilo. Foram realizados experimentos de fusão em forno de indução a vácuo, variando parâmetros como temperatura, tempo e pressão. O teor de fósforo caiu de 33 ppm para cerca de 0,1 ppm e os resultados foram comparados com um modelo matemático da literatura. Conclui-se que o refino por este processo é tecnicamente viável. / The demand for photovoltaics is increasing at a ratio over 20 % per year in the international market in the last ten years. Silicon with purity of 99.999 % and 99.99999 % is used in the manufacture of photovoltaic cells. The purity of metallurgical silicon is between 98.5% and 99%. This study aims to investigate the vacuum refining process as a lower cost alternative to obtain silicon for photovoltaic cells. This process can remove phosphorus from silicon, which is a harmful element to the photovoltaic cell. This would add value to Brazilian production of metallurgical silicon, that reaches a price of approximately U.S.$ 2.5 per kilogram, while the silicon for photovoltaic cells varies between U.S.$ 20 and 60 per kilo . Melting experiments were performed in a vacuum induction furnace by varying such parameters as temperature, time and pressure. The phosphorus content dropped from 33 ppm to about 0.1 ppm and the results were compared with a mathematical model from literature. It is concluded that refining of this process is technically feasible.

As the aerospace industry continues to incorporate composites into its aircraft, there will be a need for alternative solutions to the current autoclaving process. Liquid composite molding (LCM) has proven to be a promising alternative, producing parts at faster rates and reduced costs while retaining aerospace grade quality. The most important factor of LCM is controlling the resin flow throughout the fiber reinforcement during infusion, as incomplete filling of fibers is a major quality issue as it results in dry spots or voids. Void formation occurs at the resin flow front due to competition between viscous forces and capillary pressure. The purpose of this work is to characterize capillary pressure in vacuum infusion, and develop a model that can be incorporated into flow simulation. In all tests performed capillary pressure was always higher for the carbon fiber versus fiberglass samples. This is due to the increased fiber packing associated with the carbon fabric. As the fabric samples were compressed to achieve specific fiber volumes an increase in capillary pressure was observed due to the decrease in porosity. Measured values for capillary pressure in the carbon fabric were ~2 kPa, thus the relative effects of Pcap may become significant in flow modeling under certain slow flow conditions in composite processing.

In-situ composition measurements of the mesosphere/lower thermosphere (MLT) are challenging; this region is only accessible via high-speed sounding rockets, ambient pressures extend into the 10-3 Torr range, and particles of interest range in mass from electrons to meteoric smoke and dust particles. Time-of-flight mass spectrometers (TOF-MS) are capable of making fast, accurate measurements over a wide mass range. However, since they rely on pressure-sensitive microchannel plate (MCP) detectors and high voltages, they have rarely been applied at these altitudes. A new TOF-MS for making in-situ composition measurements in the MLT has been developed at the Space Dynamics Laboratory. This instrument employs modest acceleration potentials and a pressure-tolerant MCP detector. A Bradbury-Nielsen gate is used to produce short, well-defined ion pulses to reduce the temporal and spatial uncertainty of sampled ions. A prototype TOF-MS was constructed and used to demonstrate TOF-MS technology under conditions relevant to in-situ MLT measurements. Operational boundaries and capabilities of this new instrument were identified through laboratory experiments combined with computer modeling. The prototype instrument achieved a maximum resolution of 100 at m/z 40 (Ar), sufficient to resolve major atmospheric species of interest. During experiments at elevated pressures, the MCP detector maintained low background count rates (/second) at pressures as high as 10-3 Torr. A novel getter-based vacuum system was evaluated for use with the new TOF-MS, and a computer model was developed to simulate instrument pressure during a rocket flight. Results from these experiments suggest that when combined with an appropriately sized sampling aperture, this pumping system can extend the measurement range of the instrument to lower altitudes by 10 – 20 km, compared to an unpumped instrument. A computer model was developed to study the effects of critical operating parameters on instrument performance; the most important factor affecting resolution was found to be the initial energy spread of sampled ions. Sensitivity and number density measurement analyses suggest the new instrument will measure major species in the MLT at better than 10% uncertainty. Composition measurements made with the new TOF-MS will contribute to a better understanding of the MLT.

With CdTe based photovoltaics developed by close spaced sublimation reaching efficiencies of over 16%, commercialization of this technology draws serious attention. Today large area industrial modules have not been able to produce the same performance of their laboratory counterparts. This work provides a means for understanding the various technical challenges in developing an effective deposition technology for large area processing. The submodule process investigated provides a model for continuous and sequential processing of subsequent films. The system has a unique design and constructed with the provision for a moving transport module for the substrate transport. The process was developed to deposit large area CdTe (3 x 3 sq. inch) and provides valuable insights for the development of a large area deposition system. Upon optimizing the system for reproducibility, proper deposition conditions were established. Films deposited under various conditions were studied to improve our understanding of the influence of processing conditions on device performance. The key advantage of this technique over others is its high deposition rate, simplicity of operation and high conversion efficiency. Typical deposition times were two minutes and could be reduced to as low as 45 sec with little variation in performance. The four major parameters that influence the films prepared by close spaced sublimation, namely substrate temperature, source temperature, ambient pressure, and spacing were optimized for best device performance. The influence of each parameter on deposition rate and cell efficiency was also studied. The best cells produced by this technology had an efficiency of 13% with Voc=830 mV, FF= 74% and Jsc=21.1 mA/cm2.

Le LHC met en collision deux faisceaux de protons avec une énergie de 7 Tevchacun, entrainant ainsi un taux de particules d'environ 109 Hz. Le taux departicules est déterminé la production d'une coupe transversale, une constancenaturelle, la luminosité et un paramétre dépendant de l'accélérateurcapable de décrire les faisceaux de particules. La luminosité dépend dunombre de particules dans chaque faisceau linéairement et des dimensionstransversales du faisceau inversement. Elle augmente avec la densité dufaisceau de particules et en conséquence, la probabilité d'interactions estaccrue. Pour optimiser les tailles des faisceaux transversaux, on utilisedes dispositifs de contrle de pro_le, qui permettent de mesurer les changementsde paramétres dépendants. A l'intérieur du LHC, trois di_érentstypes de dispositifs de contrle des pro_les sont installés, savoir le WireScanner (WS), le Synchroton Light Monitor et le Rest Gas Pro_le Monitor.Le WS est considéré comme étant le plus précis de ces trois dispositifsde contrle et sert d'appareil de calibrage pour les deux autres. Ils'agit d'un appareil électromécanique qui mesure l'état de densité du faisceautransversale de faon intermittente. Lorsque le cble traverse le faisceau,l'interaction particule-matiére génére une cascade de particules secondaires.Ces derniers sont interceptés par un scintillateur, lequel est attaché un photo-multiplieur, et ce a_n de mesurer l'intensité de la lumiéreainsi produite. L'amplitude du signal lumineux est proportionnelle la densité de la portion de faisceau interceptée. L'acquisition de la position du_l et celle de l'intensité du signal sont synchronisées avec la fréquence dela révolution de particules puis sont combinées pour construire le pro_lede densité du faisceau transversal. Le WS est installé et mis en marchedans tous les accélérateurs circulaires du CERN sur une base réguliére / The LHC collides two protons beams with an energy of 7 TeV each resultingin a aimed total particle rate of about 109 Hz. The particle rateis determined by the production cross section, a natural constant and theluminosity accelerator dependent parameter describing the particle beams.The luminosity depends on the number of particles in each beam linearlyand on the transverse dimensions of the particle beam inversely. It increaseswith the particle beam density and therefore the probability of interactions.To optimize the transverse beams sizes, pro_le monitors are used to measureparameter depending changes. Within the LHC, three di_erent typesof pro_le monitors are installed: Wire scanner (WS), Synchrotron lightmonitor and Rest Gas Pro_le Monitor. The WS monitor is considered tobe the most accurate of these monitors and serves as a calibration devicefor the two others. The WS is an electro-mechanical device which measuresthe transverse beam density pro_le in an intermittent way. As the wirepasses through the beam, the particle-matter interaction generates a cascadeof secondary particles. These are intercepted by a scintillator, which isattached to a photomultiplier in order to measure the intensity of the lightthereby produced. The light signal amplitude is proportional to the densityof the intercepted beam portion. The acquisitions of the wire position andthe intensity signal are synchronized with the particle revolution frequencyand are combined to construct the transverse beam density pro_le. TheWS is installed and operated in all circular accelerators of CERN on a dailybasis.

The PhD thesis evaluates the mechanical properties and damage tolerance of aerospace carbon/epoxy laminates containing long, narrow interlaminar galleries. The term 'galleries' refers to thin and long holes in a laminate used for the installation of small measuring devices, such as structural health monitoring (SHM) sensors. The galleries considered in this study are similar to those used in a novel SHM system known as 'Comparative Vacuum Monitoring (CVM)'. CVM was developed by the Australian company - Structural Monitoring Systems (SMS) - for damage detection in aircraft structures. CVM is a SHM system that utilises pressure differentials between a parallel series of galleries at atmospheric or low pressure to detect damage initiation and propagation. Thus far, CVM has been used for the monitoring of surface cracks in metallic structures using surface mounted sensors. Recent research has also demonstrated that it may be possible to monitor damage along the bond- line of both metallic and composite joints using CVM. The ability of CVM sensors to detect delamination damage inside composite structures is less well understood. It is envisaged that CVM can be used for the through-life health monitoring of composite aircraft structures prone to delamination damage. However, a major concern with applying CVM to composite laminates is the open-hole design of the galleries that may initiate damage growth under external loading. Material property data, structural tests, and models for predicting the properties of laminates containing galleries is needed before CVM technology can be certified for use in aircraft composite structures. The primary objectives of this PhD thesis are the development of an optimum process method for introducing multiple interlaminar CVM galleries in composite laminates; the development of a validated model for calculating changes to the mechanical properties of laminates containing CVM galleries; and the determination of optimum CVM gallery shape, size and orientation combinations for minimising the effect of the galleries on the mechanical properties of laminates. The effects of the shape, size and orientation of CVM galleries on the mechanical properties of carbon/epoxy laminates are evaluated by an extensive experimental research program, and the results are presented in the thesis. The properties investigated include the in-plane tensile and compressive properties, tensile and compressive fatigue life, through-thickness tensile strength, interlaminar shear strength, mode I and mode II interlaminar fracture toughness, and impact damage resistance. The results from tensile tests on lap-joints and T-joints containing CVM galleries are also presented.

Thin-film solar cells on glass substrates are likely to have a bright future due to the potentially low costs and the short energy payback times. Polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si, grain size &gt 1 pm) has the advantage of being non-toxic, abundant, and long-term stable. Glass as a substrate, however, limits the processing temperatures to ~600??C for longer process steps. Films with large grain size can be achieved by solid phase crystallisation (SPC), and especially by solid phase epitaxy (SPE) on seed layers, using amorphous silicon deposited at low temperatures as a precursor film. With SPC and SPE, the amorphous silicon film is typically crystallised at ~600??C over hours. During this anneal at atmospheric pressure -depending on the properties of the amorphous silicon film- ambient gas can percolate the film and can negatively affect the crystallisation. In this work, a high-vacuum anneal chamber was designed and built to allow the in-situ crystallisation of amorphous silicon films deposited on glass in a PECVD cluster tool. An important aspect of the design was the comfortable and safe operation of the vacuum anneal chamber to enable unattended operation. This was realised by means of a state-of-the-art, programmable temperature controller and a control circuit design that incorporates various safety interlocks. The chamber interior was optimised such that a temperature uniformity of 2-3K across the sample area was achieved. The chamber was calibrated and tested, and SPC and SPE samples were successfully crystallised. In initial SPC crystallisation experiments with solar cell structures, after post-deposition treatments, a 1 -sun open-circuit voltage of 465 mV was obtained, similar to furnace-annealed samples. In initial experiments with SPE solar cell structures, difficulties regarding the characterisation of the unmetallised solar cells with the quasi-steady-state open-circuit voltage method (QSSVOC) were encountered after post-deposition hydrogen treatment. A possible explanation for these difficulties is the contact formation with the metal probes. Furthermore, limiting factors of the QSSVOC method for the characterisation of unmetallised cells with high contact resistance values were investigated and, additionally, the accuracyof the QSSVOC setup was improved in the low light intensity range.

In the semiconductor industry, numerous potential occupational exposures exist as a result of the diversity of chemical and physical hazards unique to integrated circuit manufacturing. The hazards associated with maintenance tasks are challenging because the sporadic nature of the tasks make exposure monitoring difficult. In particular, vacuum pump maintenance is hazardous due to the close contact with chemical waste by-products. The purpose of this study was to characterize the chemical and physical occupational exposures associated with vacuum pump maintenance (VPM) in a semiconductor manufacturing environment. The study population consisted of 9 VPM technicians at a semiconductor manufacturing plant in Oregon. VPM tasks were observed and prioritized according to potential risk of exposure. For each task studied, an exposure monitoring strategy was developed to quantify both chemical and noise exposures. Personal and area air samples of potential waste gases were conducted during maintenance tasks. All air samples were below established governmental standards. Detectable levels were found for three tasks: 0.040 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m��) of hydrochloric acid, 0.014 mg/m�� of chlorine, and 0.08 mg/m�� of fluoride containing gases during tasks associated with the metal etch tool, polynitride etch tool, and tungsten deposition tool, respectively. Several bulk samples of waste residues collected during the tasks where corrosive having low pH levels. Representative noise sampling was conducted during a 12 hour shift to characterize noise exposures. Noise samples revealed that 43% of the samples were above the 80 dBA action limit thus requiring the VPM technicians to be involved in a hearing conservation program. Field observations revealed that there were many chemical hazards associated with waste gases and residues, therefore it is likely that occupational exposures occur even though they were not detected at significant levels in this study. In addition, there were several ergonomic risk factors associated with dismantling the pump during the maintenance activities. Specific improvements in personal protective equipment, general work practices, ergonomics, and engineering controls will help to reduce the potential for occupational exposures unique to VPM. Results from this study indicate the need to conduct in depth hazard evaluations of high risk populations such as the VPM technicians. / Graduation date: 1997