M.Tech. / According to the “Lovett Reactor” as explained by Walther (2000), the Atlas and the 5th lumbar vertebrae rotate in the same direction when a person walks. This relationship continues throughout the spinal column as 3rd cervical vertebrae (C3) rotates in the same direction as 3rd lumbar vertebrae (L3). From this point the movement changes to counter-rotation as 4th cervical vertebrae (C4) counter-rotates to 2nd lumbar vertebrae (L2) and 5th cervical vertebrae (C5) to 1st lumbar vertebrae (L1). According to Inman, Ralston and Todd (1981) this correlation extends as the Sacrum reacts with the Occiput. Thus, there is clinical verification demonstrating that the Lovett Reactor vertebrae are often interrelated to primary and compensatory subluxations. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of Chiropractic Occipital adjustments versus Chiropractic Sacroiliac adjustments in the treatment of chronic Lumbar Sacral pain.

Incremental growth rings in X-rays of salmon vertebrae have been used since the 1980s to age Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) remains from archaeological sites in the Pacific Northwest. These age estimates, paired with generalized life history patterns, have been used to determine salmon species, season of capture and in turn season of site occupation. This approach relies on a variety of assumptions, the most fundamental of which is that rings represent true years. Archaeologists using vertebral age determination techniques have failed to adequately test this assumption and present their methodologies. This thesis assesses the validity of using incremental growth structures in Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) vertebrae to determine the age at death of fish represented in archaeological sites. This project develops criteria and a protocol for the identification of true annuli and tests these identifications on a collection of modern Chinook salmon of known age. Finally, this protocol is applied to archaeological remains of Chinook from Cathlapotle (45CL1). Three collections of modern known age fish (N=121) were used to evaluate and test approaches to aging Chinook salmon with vertebrae. These collections contained juvenile and adult Chinook from throughout Washington and Oregon. I evaluated a variety of methods for viewing rings including magnified surface images, X-ray images and thin sections to determine which is the most accurate, reliable and efficient, also considering the extent of specimen destruction. Rings visible in X-rays were found to reflect the internal structure of vertebrae rather than annular growth. The number of these internal walls did not correspond to the known ages of fish and are therefore not true annuli. Criteria previously described by salmon fisheries biologist were used to isolate annuli (on the centrum surface) on the Hanford reach collection (N=46). In a test for accuracy 39 (85%) were aged correctly. In a test of reliability utilizing five additional readers all but 14 cases showed discrepancies among readers. Results of the test of reliability were not as successful as other researchers in fisheries biology but given the high accuracy rate the method remains valid. The final goal of this project was to determine the feasibility of applying the surface ring method of age determination to archaeological collections. Archaeological salmon vertebrae from Cathlapotle (45CL1) on the lower Columbia River, Washington state were utilized. One hundred salmon vertebrae were selected and classified to species according to Huber et al. (2011); 89 were identified as Chinook. Of these, 39 had sufficient preservation of the surface to view and interpret incremental rings. Three ages were identified 3, 4 and 5 year olds. This ageing protocol can be applied to archaeological Chinook salmon vertebrae to estimate age of ancient Chinook salmon. Additional work is needed on other salmon species to demonstrate the methods validity across all salmonid species. This analysis has great potential for modeling salmon paleo-life history by contributing data from salmon populations prior to the major impacts of the 19th and 20th century. This is particularly valuable for salmon conservation because information on size, the timing and duration of freshwater emigration as well as the age of spawning and death is critical to the management of hatchery and wild salmon populations.

No description available.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Linköping : Univ., 2002. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.

Submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Masters’ Degree in Technology: Chiropractic, Department of Chiropractic, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2014. / Background: Spinal manipulation has been shown to result in neurophysiological changes, most often noted in the paraspinal muscles. These effects have been associated with an increase in paraspinal muscle contractibility; it is unclear if this leads to an increase in paraspinal muscle endurance. Objectives: To determine the effect of sacroiliac joint (SIJ) manipulation compared to a placebo treatment of the SIJ on lumbar extensor muscle endurance time. Method: A randomised, placebo-controlled pre-test post-test experimental trial, involving 40 asymptomatic male participants divided into an intervention group receiving SIJ manipulation using an impulse adjusting instrument and a placebo group receiving a pre-load force without the delivery of an impulse thrust. Outcome measures were lumbar extensor muscle endurance time, surface electromyographic (SEMG) readings, lumbar spinal range of motion, paraspinal muscle length assessment and a subjective pain measurement. Results: There was a significant difference between the groups (p=0.004) with the SIJ manipulation group showing an increase in endurance time compared to the placebo group which showed a decrease. SEMG readings increased for both groups with no statistically significant difference between the groups (p>0.05). Only extension lumbar spinal range of motion significantly improved in both groups (p=˂0.001) with no significant differences between groups (p=0.876). Only one participant reported pain during the research procedure. Conclusions: SIJ manipulation may enhance the endurance of the paraspinal muscles. This study should be conducted in a larger sample to validate the findings.

Submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Masters’ Degree in Technology: Chiropractic, Department of Chiropractic, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2014. / Background Spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) is a commonly used therapeutic modality. It has been shown that neuromuscular reflexes are elicited during spinal manipulation resulting in changes in the surrounding muscle tonicity and seen as changes in surface electromyography. Despite this little is known about the effect that SMT may have on muscle function. Increased maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) of the paraspinal muscles has been observed following lumbar SMT compared to a control and sham treatment; however its effect on muscle endurance has not been investigated. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of lumbar SMT compared to a placebo treatment on lumbar extensor muscle endurance in asymptomatic individuals. Method This study was a quantitative double blinded, pre-test and post-test placebo controlled experimental trial. Forty asymptomatic participants were randomly allocated to one of two treatment groups. One group received a single SMT applied to the L3 vertebrae and the other received the pre-load force of the SMT but no thrust. Subjective (a self-report of pain/discomfort while performing the Biering-Sorensen test) and objective [surface electromyography (sEMG), paraspinal muscle endurance time and lumbar spine range of motion] measurements were taken pre- and post-intervention. The latest version of SPSS version (IBM SPSS Inc.) was used to analyse the data. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Independent t-tests were used to compare means and two-way factor ANOVA (for repeated measures) was used to compare the change in the two time points between the two treatment groups (intervention and control). RESULTS There were no statistically significant differences between the intervention and placebo groups in terms of subjective reports of pain/discomfort and objective evidence of surface EMG readings, paraspinal muscle endurance time and lumbar spine range of motion.

Submitted in partial compliance with the requirements for the Master’s Degree in Technology: Chiropractic, Department of Chiropractic, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2015. / Background: Spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) is a commonly used treatment for many musculoskeletal conditions although the exact mechanism explaining its effectiveness is not well understood. Several studies have investigated the effect of SMT on the paraspinal muscles where neuromuscular effects have been observed, however few studies have assessed whether these changes result in a change in the functioning of the paraspinal muscles. This study aimed to determine the effect of lower thoracic spinal manipulation compared to a placebo intervention on lumbar extensor muscle endurance in asymptomatic participants. Methodology: This was a quantitative, pre-test post-test, placebo controlled trial involving 40 male participants between the ages of 20 and 40 years. The participants were randomly allocated to either the lower thoracic spinal manipulation group or a placebo group. Manipulation was delivered using the Impulse Adjusting Instrument®. Objective measures included lumbar spinal range of motion, a paraspinal muscle endurance test, and surface electromyography readings. Subjective measures were the verbalisation of pain and/or discomfort during the paraspinal muscle endurance test. IBM® SPSS® statistics version 21 and STATA 11 were used to analyse the data. A p-value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: There were no statistically significant differences between the groups in terms of subjective and objective measurements. A trend of treatment effect was observed for paraspinal muscle endurance where the intervention group showed noticeable improvements in endurance scores. Conclusion: Further studies need to be conducted to determine if the trends observed would occur in a larger study population.

As características do crescimento craniofacial dos indivíduos portadores de má oclusão de Classe II na fase de crescimento, são de intenso interesse dos ortodontistas por esta má oclusão representar uma alta porcentagem dos casos em tratamento nos consultórios. Esta investigação objetivou estudar cefalométrica e comparativamente o crescimento craniofacial em crianças leucodermas portadoras de má oclusão de Classe II e de Oclusão Normal. Foram utilizadas 148 telerradiografias em norma lateral de 78 meninos e 70 meninas, faixa etária dos 7 aos 12 anos, portadores de má oclusão de Classe II, e 60 telerradiografias em norma lateral de 30 meninas e 30 meninos com Oclusão Normal. As amostras foram divididas considerando-se o estágio da maturação das vértebras cervicais pelo método de Hassel e Farman(HASSEL; FARMAN 1995), estando os grupos nos níveis Iniciação(I), Aceleração (A) e Transição (T) do desenvolvimento esquelético. Foram utilizadas as grandezas SNA, A-Nperp e Co-A para avaliar o componente maxilar; SNB, P-Nperp, Co-Gn, Co-Go e Go-Gn para o componente mandibular; ANB representou a relação maxilomandibular; SN.GoGn, FMA, NS.Gn, BaN.PtGn e ENA-Me para o componente vertical, e o ângulo da base do crânio representado por NS.Ba. O teste t independente foi aplicado: entre os grupos para verificar a precocidade dos índices entre os gêneros; em cada grupo e índice nos gêneros feminino e no masculino; na comparação entre os grupos em cada índice nos gêneros feminino e no masculino; na comparação entre os grupos na fase IT (Iniciação Transição) em cada gênero. Os resultados mostraram: precocidade do índice A (aceleração) no gênero feminino do grupo de Classe II. Na comparação entre os gêneros do grupo de Classe II no nível I, as medidas de Co-A, Co-Gn, Go- Gn e ENA-Me foram maiores no gênero masculino, que também apresentaram significância estatística no nível A, acompanhado de um maior FMA; no nível T, apenas Co-Gn e ENA-Me foram maiores no grupo de Classe II do gênero masculino. Na comparação entre os gêneros do grupo de Oclusão Normal no nível I, as medidas de FMA e NS.Gn foram maiores no gênero masculino, que também apresentaram significância estatística no nível A, acompanhados do Co-A, SNB, PNPerp, Co-Gn e ENA-Me, enquanto o gênero feminino apresentou maior valor de NSBa; no nível T, apenas Co-Go foi estatisticamente maior no gênero masculino. Na comparação entre os grupos do gênero feminino e nível I, o grupo de Classe II apresentou significância estatística para as variáveis A-Nperp, Co-Go, ANB, SN.GoGn, NS.Gn, BaN.PtGn, ENA-Me e NSBA; na fase A, as medidas Co-Go, ANB, NS.Gn, ENA-Me e NSBa foram maiores no grupo de Classe II que apresentou menor BaN.PtGn; na fase T, apenas Co-Go e BaN.PtGn permaneceram significantes para o grupo de Classe II. Na comparação entre os grupos do gênero masculino e nível I, as variáveis SNB, Co-Gn, Co-Go, ANB, ENA-Me e NSBa foram maiores no grupo de Classe II; no nível A, apenas SNB, ANB e BaNPtGn foram significantes, e permaneceram também no nível T. Avaliando os grupos do gênero feminino na fase IT, as variáveis A-Nperp e Co-Go foram maiores no grupo de Classe II, acompanhados de deficiente relação entre as bases ósseas (ANB), um padrão de crescimento mais vertical (SN.GoGn, NS.Gn, BaN.PtGn, ENA-Me) e maior deflexão da base do crânio (NSBa). Na comparação entre os grupos do gênero masculino na fase IT, o grupo de Classe II apresentou maior retrusão mandibular (SNB), maior ANB, tendência de crescimento craniofacial vertical (BaN.PtGn) e maior deflexão da base do crânio (NSBa). Ficou explícito que a má oclusão de Classe II não se auto corrige, que o crescimento é indomável, imutável e individual, regido pela soberania da genética que é responsável pelo estabelecimento e manutenção do padrão facial durante a vida. Sustentando a intervenção terapêutica nestes níveis de grande expectativa de crescimento determinado pela maturação esquelética, o ortodontista terá a pretensão de contrariar a genética e corrigir a discrepância esquelética presente na Classe II. Essa concepção deverá estar edificada sobre a soberania do crescimento para que o ortodontista vise a prática mais lógica e menos frustrante, sabendo superar as limitações dos resultados, mesmo diante de tratamentos ortopédicos bem sucedidos. / Craniofacial growth characteristics of individuals with Class II malocclusion at the stage of growth are of intense interest os Orthodontists for this malocclusion represents a high percentage of cases where treatment in clinics. The purpose of this study was to compare the craniofacial growth changes through 148 (78 males and 70 females) lateral cephalograms of untreated subjects with Class II Division 1 malocclusion, at a mean age of 10,03 years, with those lateral cephalograms of 60 (30 males ans 30 females) subjects with normal occlusion, at a mean age of 10 years, divided by stages of development (Initiation, Acceleration and Transition) as defined by a biological indicator of cervical vertebrae skeletal maturity (HASSEL; FARMAN 1995). Cephalometric measurements in Class II and Normal Occlusion evaluated was SNA, A-Nperp, Co-A, SNB, P-Nperp, Co-Gn, Co-Go, Go-Gn, ANB, SN.GoGn, FMA, NS.Gn, BaN.PtGn, ENA-Me and NS.Ba. Statistical comparision of the growth changes in the study groups, stages os development and gender were performed with independent t test. Evaluating the Class II group, mens presented Co-A, Co-Gn, Go-Gn and ENA-Me larger at stage I and at stage A accompanied by greater FMA; in stage T, just Co-Gn and ENA-Me were the largest group of Class II of male gender. Evaluating the Normal Occlusion group, mens presented FMA, NSGn larger at stage I and at stage A, accompanied by greater Co-A, SNB, P-Nperp, Co-Gn and ENA-Me, while the female gender has greater value of NSBa; at stage T, only Co-Go was statistically higher in mens gender. In the comparision between the groups of female gender and stage I, the group Class II presented statistical significance for the variables A-Nperp, Co-Go, ANB, SN.GoGn, NS.Gn, BaN.PtGn, ENA-Me e NSBA; at stage A, Co-Go, ANB, NS.Gn, ENA-Me and NSBa were the largest group of Class II that had less BaN.PtGn; at stage T, just Co-Go and BaN.PtGn remained significant for the group Class II. In the comparision between the groups of male gender and stage I, the group Class II presented statistical significance for the variables SNB, Co-Gn, Co-Go, ANB, ENA-Me and NSBa; at stage A, just SNB, ANB and BaNPtGn were significant, and remained in stage T. Evaluating the female gender groups in phase IT, the variables A-Nperp and Co-Go were the largest group of Class II, accompanied by poor relations between the bases described by ANB, more vertical growth pattern (SN.GoGn, NS.Gn, BaN.PtGn, ENA-Me) and greater NSBa. In the comparision between the groups of male gender in phase IT, the group Class II presented greater SNB, ANB, vertical craniofacial growth trend (BaN.PtGn) and greater deflexion at the base of the skull (NSBa).

A estimativa de idade em indivíduos vivos representa um desafio com significativa importância nos âmbitos civil e penal. O estudo de estruturas do corpo humano para estimar a idade cronológica norteia-se na avaliação dos acontecimentos que transcorrem durante os processos de crescimento e desenvolvimento, uma vez que, comumente, apresentam uma sequência lógica e constante. A literatura mundial sugere uma abordagem multifatorial para o processo de estimativa da idade em indivíduos vivos, ou seja, a avaliação do desenvolvimento de mais de um local anatômico. Nessa perspectiva, os objetivos da primeira fase do estudo consistiram em validar o método de estimativa de idade por meio dos índices radiográficos oro-cervicais em brasileiros, além de verificar a relação entre idade real e idade estimada com a aplicação dos índices radiográficos. Na segunda etapa, objetivou-se verificar a efetividade das equações de estimativa de idade pelo exame dos dentes elaboradas por Chaillet e Demirjian (2004) e as equações para estimar a idade pelo exame das vértebras cervicais apresentadas por Caldas et al. (2007a). Por fim, o último objetivo foi elaborar novas equações para estimativa da idade real associando dados dentários e medidas cervicais dos métodos anteriores. A amostra avaliada foi composta por radiografias panorâmicas e telerradiografias pertencentes a 510 indivíduos com idades entre 08 e 24,9 anos. Durante a primeira fase da pesquisa, foram aplicados métodos de estimativa de idade por meio da avaliação do desenvolvimento de sete dentes mandibulares, vértebras cervicais e terceiros molares. Logo após, as técnicas aplicadas previamente foram combinadas por meio dos índices radiográficos: o escore radiográfico oro-cervical simplificado (EROCS) e o escore radiográfico oro-cervical simplificado sem o terceiro molar (EROCSSTM). No decorrer da segunda fase, avaliou-se a maturação dentária, atribuiu-se a pontuação referente a cada dente e a idade real foi estimada por meio de equações de regressão de Chaillet e Demirjian (2004). Em relação às vértebras cervicais, foram realizadas medidas dos corpos vertebrais e os valores substituídos nas fórmulas propostas por Caldas et al. (2007a). Os achados do estudo indicaram que entre os escores radiográficos, o EROCS apresentou taxa de acerto geral igual a 67,4% e uma relação moderada com a idade cronológica, sendo o coeficiente de determinação (R2) equivalente a 0,64; para o EROCSSTM a taxa de acerto correspondeu a 70,8% e R2 igual a 0,62. Ao aplicar a metodologia de Chaillet e Demirjian (2004) para os dentes, o erro médio foi igual a 1,3 anos, e o método de Caldas et al. (2007a) para as vértebras cervicais obteve um erro médio de 1,9 anos. As variáveis dentárias e as medidas das cervicais foram associadas e novas equações de regressão foram desenvolvidas para a amostra de brasileiros, apresentando um erro médio igual a 1,0 ano. Por fim, tem-se que os índices radiográficos oro-cervicais foram de fácil execução após um treinamento adequado, reprodutíveis e passíveis de utilização na prática forense. Além disso, recomenda-se o uso das novas equações elaboradas neste estudo ao associar dados das vértebras cervicais com informações do desenvolvimento dentário para obtenção de estimativas de idade com maior acurácia. / The age estimation in living subjects is a challenge with significant importance in civil and criminal areas. The study of human body structures to estimate the chronological age is guided by the evaluation of events which happens during the processes of growth and development, since they have a constant and logic sequence. The worldwide literature has suggested a multifactorial approach to age estimation in living subjects which is the evaluation of development of more than one anatomical location. In this sense, the objectives of the first phase of the study consisted in validate the age estimation method through oro-cervical radiographic indexes in Brazilians and identify the relationship between real age and estimated age with application of radiographic indexes. The second phase of study aimed to verify the effectiveness of age estimation equations proposed by Chaillet and Demirjian (2004) through dental exams, and evaluated Caldas et al. (2007a) age estimation equations using cervical vertebrae. The last aim was to develop new equations for estimating the real age associating dental data and cervical measures of previous methods. The sample comprised panoramic radiographs and teleradiography belonging to 510 subjects, aged 08 to 24.9 years old. During the first phase of the research, age estimation methods were applied by assessing the development of seven mandibular teeth, cervical vertebrae and third molars. Then, the techniques used previously have been combined by radiographic indexes: the Oro-Cervical Radiographic Simplified Score (OCRSS) and Oro-Cervical Radiographic Simplified Score without Wisdom Teeth (OCRSSWWT). During the second phase, evaluated the dental maturation, assigned the score to each tooth and the real age was estimated by regression equations of Chaillet and Demirjian (2004). Regarding the cervical vertebrae, measurements were made of vertebral bodies and the values were used in formulas proposed by Caldas et al. (2007a). The findings of study show that between radiographic scores, the OCRSS presented a positive rate of 67.4% and a moderate relationship with chronological age with a coefficient of determination (R2) equivalent to 0.64; for EROCSSTM the hit rate was 70.8% and R2 of 0.62. Chaillet and Demirjian\'s technique was applied for dental age estimation, which showed an average error of 1.3 years and the method of Caldas et al. (2007a) was applied for cervical vertebrae age estimation with an average error of 1.9 years. Dental variables and measurements of cervical vertebrae were associated and new regression equations were developed for Brazilians, and the average error of equations developed in the study was 1.0 year. Finally, the method with radiographic indexes was easy to perform after adequate training, reliable and can be used in forensic practice. In addition, the use of new equations presented in this study is recommended because associating cervical vertebrae data with dental development allowed age estimates with greater accuracy.

The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is an iconic species that dominates the global finfish production sector with increasing market demand. The Scottish industry and government alone aspires for expansion of the sector to 210,000 t by 2020 with 154, 000 t produced in 2013. As such, there are pressures to improve sustainable development in particular to minimise the genetic impact of escapees on wild populations and reduce sea lice infection which are required for the granting of “green licenses” in Norway. The use of triploidy has been tested in the 1980’s with little success owing to suboptimal rearing conditions leading to elevated mortalities, poorer growth and a higher prevalence of deformities, in particular of the skeleton. Collectively: recent success of triploid trout farming, expansion to the salmon production sector and potential resulting pressure on wild stocks through escapee increases have reinstated interest to implement artificially induced triploid Atlantic salmon in commercial production. As diploid Atlantic salmon have undertaken extensive domestication to achieve the high quality production and welfare standards observed to date, triploid conspecifics too require husbandry optimisation to realise potential. In particular, industrialisation requires that higher observations of deformities and inconsistent growth trajectories during seawater ongrowing be resolved through optimisation of rearing regimes and subsequent standardization of husbandry protocols. Triploids possess additional genomic material and increased cell size yet reduced frequency that reflects known differences in physiology and supports that, in effect, triploids should be considered as a new species relative to diploid conspecifics. Therefore, this doctoral thesis aimed to study nutrition and temperature effects on triploid Atlantic salmon traits throughout the production cycle from ‘egg to plate’. Nutrition trials aimed to improve growth potential and mitigate skeletal deformities both in freshwater (FW) and saltwater (SW) whilst attempts were made to define a window of smoltification to ensure optimal ongrowing performance. Finally, impacts of embryonic temperature regimes that are known to impact long term performance and deformity development in triploids, were examined in relation to DNA regulation and yolk composition in an attempt to underpin potential mechanisms for the environmental impact of temperature on developmental phenotype. One of the main restrictions to triploid Atlantic salmon implementation is the increased prevalence and severity of skeletal deformities, particularly after the maring phase. The work performed in this thesis first demonstrated that protein and/or phosphorous (P) supplementation throughout SW ongrowing not only reduced the level of severely deformed (≥ 10 deformed vertebrae observable by x-radiography) individuals by 30 % but also sustained 6.8 % faster growth and improved harvest grade compared to triploids fed a standard grower diet (chapter 2). Comparison of x-radiography and severely deformed individuals between harvest and sea transfer highlighted that protein and P supplementation arrested deformity development whereas prevalence increased in triploids fed a standard grower diet. This implied that severe deformities were of FW origin and strongly suggest requirement for improved nutrition in FW to optimise SW performance. Therefore investigation of higher dietary P inclusion in FW was investigated and results showed significantly reduced number of deformed vertebrae and no severely deformed individuals in those fed 19.7 g total P Kg-1 compared with those fed 13.0 & 16.7 g total P Kg-1 (chapter 3). Most deformities were localised in the central (vertebrae 27 – 31) and caudal (vertebrae 52 – 57) regions for all treatments. However, triploids fed lower dietary P displayed a particular increase in prevalence within the tail region (vertebrae 32- 47) which is consistent with SW ongrowing reports and results from chapter 2, further highlighting FW origin of higher vertebral deformities reported in SW ongrowing in triploids. Higher P supplementation in FW also significantly improved growth in triploid parr compared to diploids and lower supplementation. However, this effect did not transpire in later FW smolt stages where weights were significantly higher in triploids fed lower compared to higher P supplementation. Expression of target genes involved in osteogenesis and bone P homeostasis in vertebrates were then analysed and a ploidy effect of osteogenic genes alp, igf1r and opn as well as a dietary effect on P homeostasis gene fgf23 was apparent in the parr stages but not smolt. In addition, stronger ploidy-diet effects were also observed in parr stages for whole body mineral concentrations. Collectively, growth, gene expression and whole body mineral content results indicate these earlier parr life stages may be more sensitive to P supplementation. This pronounced effect may be a consequence of seasonal accelerated growth associated with this period, where higher temperatures were also observed. The potential for shorter P supplementation windows in commercial production was addressed in chapter 4 with hope to cut economic cost to raw mineral inclusion in feed and also mitigate potential anthropogenic eutrophication on the environment that may be induced by P leached through uneaten feed and faeces. Triploids were fed higher dietary P (17.4 g total P Kg-1) until either early (5 g) or later (20 g) parr stages, or smolt (83 g) and monitored for performance throughout freshwater (FW) development. During later parr development (30 g), x-radiography assessment demonstrated that increased dietary P reduced the number of deformities and severely deformed individuals with no indication that feeding P for shorter windows improved skeletal integrity. Hence, P supplementation may be required throughout FW development for optimal skeletal performance. In addition, no differences in deformities were observed between triploid treatments at smolt. An effect of dietary P supplementation on whole body mineral concentration was observed in the early and later parr stages that was not as pronounced as smolt, which is consistent with results in chapter 3. Together, these results indicate that skeletal assessment during early developmental stages may not reflect smolt performance most likely as a consequence of seasonal effects of improved linear growth in the cooler winter temperatures prior to smolt where reversible deformities observed at parr may also be alleviated. In the same study (chapter 4), the inclusion of the probiotic Pediococcus acidilactici (Bactocell™) was also tested as a means to enhance gut assimilation as suggested in previous studies and therefore reduce the levels of P supplementation. Results clearly indicate superior skeletal performance in parr (30 g) as well as significantly less deformed vertebrae and no severely deformed individuals. However, at smolt (~83g), no effects of the dietary probiotic treatment were observed which may also be attributed to seasonal effects. Overall, nutritional research clearly indicate triploids require higher dietary P for optimal growth and skeletal development, which although is not consistent between life stages, is ultimately required throughout FW for optimal skeletal development at smolt. The use of probiotics offer a promising avenue for reduced P requirement in FW feed and further research should verify results and assess long-term performance. Timing of SW transfer according to correct parr-smolt transformation (PST) is essential for survival and growth performance in ongrowing where feeding and growth rate accelerate post-transfer. So far, SW transfer regimes and in particular the smoltification ‘window’ remains loosely defined in triploid Atlantic salmon and it is crucial that this be addressed to ensure optimal ongrowing survival and performance.