Background: Folate and cobalamin are essential cofactors for homocysteine (HCY) metabolism. Hyperhomocysteinemia, a multifactorial condition, may reflect B vitamin deficiency and is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease, thrombosis, and neurodegenerative and chronic gastrointestinal diseases in humans. Hyperhomocysteinemia has been reported in Greyhounds with suspected chronic enteropathy. Objectives: To evaluate the frequencies of and the association between hypofolatemia and hyperhomocysteinemia in Greyhounds. Animals: Data and serum samples from 559 Greyhounds. Methods: Nested case-control study. The frequency of hypofolatemia in Greyhounds was determined by a laboratory database search. The relationship between hyperhomocysteinemia (measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) and hypocobalaminemia and hypofolatemia was evaluated, and its frequency compared between healthy Greyhounds and Greyhounds with thrombosis or chronic diarrhea. Results: Hypofolatemia was identified in 172 of 423 (41%) Greyhounds and was more common in hypo- than in normocobalaminemic dogs (49% vs. 35%; P = .0064). Hyperhomocysteinemia was detected in 53 of 78 (68%) of Greyhounds, being more common in hypo- than in normofolatemic dogs (88% vs. 59%; P = .0175). All healthy Greyhounds, 21 of 30 (70%) of dogs with chronic diarrhea and 6 of 8 (75%) of those with thrombosis, were hyperhomocysteinemic. Serum HCY concentrations were inversely correlated with serum folate concentration (q = -0.28; P = .0386) and were positively associated with serum albumin concentration (q = 0.66; P = .0022). Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Hyperhomocysteinemia occurs frequently in the Greyhound population. Its association with hypofolatemia suggests decreased intracellular availability of B vitamins, but the functional implications warrant further investigation. Hyperhomocysteinemia in Greyhounds potentially may serve as a spontaneous canine model to further investigate hyperhomocysteinemia in humans.

Background: Folate and cobalamin are essential cofactors for homocysteine (HCY) metabolism. Hyperhomocysteinemia, a multifactorial condition, may reflect B vitamin deficiency and is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease, thrombosis, and neurodegenerative and chronic gastrointestinal diseases in humans. Hyperhomocysteinemia has been reported in Greyhounds with suspected chronic enteropathy. Objectives: To evaluate the frequencies of and the association between hypofolatemia and hyperhomocysteinemia in Greyhounds. Animals: Data and serum samples from 559 Greyhounds. Methods: Nested case-control study. The frequency of hypofolatemia in Greyhounds was determined by a laboratory database search. The relationship between hyperhomocysteinemia (measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) and hypocobalaminemia and hypofolatemia was evaluated, and its frequency compared between healthy Greyhounds and Greyhounds with thrombosis or chronic diarrhea. Results: Hypofolatemia was identified in 172 of 423 (41%) Greyhounds and was more common in hypo- than in normocobalaminemic dogs (49% vs. 35%; P = .0064). Hyperhomocysteinemia was detected in 53 of 78 (68%) of Greyhounds, being more common in hypo- than in normofolatemic dogs (88% vs. 59%; P = .0175). All healthy Greyhounds, 21 of 30 (70%) of dogs with chronic diarrhea and 6 of 8 (75%) of those with thrombosis, were hyperhomocysteinemic. Serum HCY concentrations were inversely correlated with serum folate concentration (q = -0.28; P = .0386) and were positively associated with serum albumin concentration (q = 0.66; P = .0022). Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Hyperhomocysteinemia occurs frequently in the Greyhound population. Its association with hypofolatemia suggests decreased intracellular availability of B vitamins, but the functional implications warrant further investigation. Hyperhomocysteinemia in Greyhounds potentially may serve as a spontaneous canine model to further investigate hyperhomocysteinemia in humans.

Le terme folate (vitamine B9) désigne une famille de molécules ayant une structure de base composée de 3 parties : un noyau pterine, un acide para-aminobenzoïque (pABA) et une chaine de glutamates. Le rôle de ces cofacteurs est de transporter des groupements monocarbonés. Ils interviennent dans de nombreuses réactions comme la synthèse des bases nucléiques, la synthèse de méthionine et la synthèse et le turnover de la S-adenosylmethionine,. Le folate est synthétisé chez les plantes et un grand nombre de micro-organismes dont les parasites du phylum des apicomplexes, tels que Plasmodium falciparum, et Toxoplasma gondii. Les enzymes impliquées dans cette voie de biosynthèse étant absentes chez l'homme, elles représentent des cibles herbicides, antibiotiques et antiparasitaires potentielles. Les inhibiteurs de la voie de biosynthèse du folate (tels que les sulfamides, analogues du pABA et inhibiteurs de la dihydroptéroate synthase, ou les inhibiteurs de la dihydrofolate réductase), sont souvent utilisés comme antibiotiques et antiparasitaires. Un problème majeur dans le traitement de ces maladies infectieuses est la résistance développée contre ces molécules, ce qui nécessite la recherche permanente de nouveaux médicaments. Le pABA est synthétisé en plusieurs étapes qui sont autant de cibles intéressantes pour développer de nouveaux inhibiteurs. Tout d'abord l'aminodeoxychorismate (ADC) synthase transforme le chorismate en ADC, puis dans une seconde étape, l'ADC est transformé en pABA par une ADC lyase. Chez les plantes supérieures et les parasites apicomplexes l'ADC synthase est une enzyme bifonctionnelle composée de deux grands domaines, un domaine glutamine amidotranferase (GAT) qui permet de produire le NH3 nécessaire à l'amination du chorismate, et un domaine ADC synthase (ADCS). Nous avons pu déterminer les paramètres cinétiques de la GAT-ADCS d'Arabidopsis. Nous avons constaté que ces deux domaines fonctionnent indépendamment, c'est-à-dire soit en présence de glutamine seule pour le domaine GAT (pas de chorismate), soit en présence de chorismate et de NH3 pour le domaine ADCS (pas de glutamine). Toutefois, le fonctionnement en tandem des deux domaines (tous les substrats sont présents) améliore les propriétés cinétiques (kcat) de chacun d'eux. Nos résultats montrent aussi que le NH3 produit par le domaine GAT et nécessaire à la synthèse de l'ADC n'est pas relargué dans le milieu extérieur mais canalisé (channeling) vers le domaine ADCS. Finalement, nous avons observé que l'ADC, produit final de la réaction, retro-inhibe le domaine ADCS en absence d'ADC lyase. Pris dans son ensemble, nos résultats indiquent que l'amination du chorismate est l'étape la plus limitante de la synthèse du pABA,.. Des expériences de criblage à haut débit nous ont permis d'identifier une molécule, la rubreserine, qui inhibe in vitro le domaine GAT de l'ADC synthase d'Arabidopsis avec un Ki autour de 8 µM. Nous avons observé que cette molécule inhibe la croissance de plantules d'Arabidopsis thaliana et la prolifération des parasites Toxoplasma gondii et Plasmodium falciparum avec des IC50 respectif de 65 µM, 20 µM et 1.2 µM. Chez Arabidopsis, la concentration en folate des cellules traitées est abaissée d'environ 40% par rapport au contrôle, une diminution qui n'a plus lieu en présence de pABA. L'ajout de pABA et de 5-formyltetrahydrofolate dans les milieux de culture d'Arabidopsis ou de Toxoplasma supprime en grande partie l'inhibition de croissance liée à la rubreserine, ce qui montre bien la connexion entre rubreserine et voie de biosynthèse du folate. Avec Toxoplama gondii, la rubreserine apparait plus efficace que les sulfamides pour bloquer l'invasion et la prolifération de ces parasites dans les fibroblastes humains. Ces résultats valident la GAT-ADCS comme cible anti-folate et montrent que la rubreserine a des propriétés anti-parasitaires intéressantes. / The term folate (vitamin B9) is a family of molecules with a basic structure composed of 3 parts: a core pterin, a para amino benzoic acid (PABA) moiety and a chain of glutamate. The role of these cofactors is to carry one-carbon groups. They are involved in many reactions such as the synthesis of nucleic acids, the synthesis of methionine and the synthesis and turnover of S-adenosylmethionine. Folate is synthesized in plants and many micro-organisms including parasites of the Apicomplexa phylum such as Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii. Several enzymes involved in the pathway are absent in humans, and so they are potential targets for herbicide, antibiotic and antiparasitic drugs. Inhibitors of folate biosynthesis (such as dihydropteroate synthase inhibitors, or inhibitors of dihydrofolate reductase), are often used as antibiotics and pesticides. A major problem in treating these infectious diseases is the resistance developed against these molecules, which requires a constant search for new drugs. pABA is synthesized in several steps which are all attractive targets for developing new inhibitors. First the aminodeoxychorismate (ADC) synthase converts chorismate into ADC, and then, in a second step, the ADC is converted to pABA by an ADC lyase. In higher plants and apicomplexan parasites the ADC synthase is a bifunctional enzyme composed of two main domains: a glutamine amidotranferase (GAT) domain that produces NH3, and an ADC synthase domain (ADCS) that catalyzes the amination of chorismate. We determined the kinetic parameters of the Arabidopsis GAT-ADCS. We found that these two domains function independently, that is to say either in the presence of glutamine alone for the GAT domain (no chorismate) or in the presence of chorismate and NH3 for the ADCS domain (no glutamine). However, the tandem operation of the two domains (all substrates are present) improves the kinetic properties (kcat) of each one. Our results also show that the NH3 produced by the GAT domain and required for the synthesis of ADC is not released into the surroundings but rather channeled to the active site of ADCS. Finally, we observed that ADC, the final product of the reaction, retro-inhibits the ADCS domain in the absence of ADC lyase. Taken together, our results indicate that the amination reaction of chorismate is the most limiting step of the synthesis of pABA. Using high-throughput screening approaches we have identified a molecule, rubreserine, which inhibits in vitro the GAT domain of Arabidopsis GAT-ADCS with a Ki value around 8 µM. We observed that this molecule inhibits the growth of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings and the proliferation of Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium falciparum parasites with respective IC50 of 65 µM, 20 µM and 1 µM. In Arabidopsis, the concentration of folate in rubreserine-treated cells is lowered by about 40% compared to controls, a decrease that is suppressed in the presence of pABA. The addition of pABA and 5-Formyltetrahydrofolate in the culture media of Arabidopsis and Toxoplasma partly reverses the growth inhibition due to rubreserine, which shows the connection between the drug and folate biosynthesis. Rubreserine appears more effective than sulfa-drugs to block the invasion and proliferation of Toxoplasma gondii in human fibroblasts. These results validate the GAT-ADCS as an anti-folate target and show that rubreserine has interesting anti-parasitic properties.

A deficiência de folato é um problema de saúde pública que vem sendo combatido através da fortificação obrigatória de ácido fólico. Entretanto, a ingestão excessiva pode causar efeitos colaterais indesejados. A forma natural da vitamina produzida por algumas cepas de bactérias láticas pode ser uma alternativa segura para aumentar a ingestão de folato pela população. Este trabalho visou selecionar as melhores cepas de BAL produtoras de folato, identificar as melhores condições para a produção da vitamina e avaliar a biodisponibilidade do folato produzido pelas cepas no leite fermentado, empregando-se testes em modelos animais. O estudo foi desenvolvido com cinco cepas de Streptococcus thermophilus (34v, 170v, 268v, 361v e 341 pc) e um cepa de Lactobacillus plantarum (16cv), todas boas produtoras de folato. As condições de produção e a combinação de cepas que resultaram na melhor produção folato foram utilizadas para produzir um leite biofermentado (BFM), avaliando-se a biodisponibilidade da vitamina produzida empregando-se um modelo animal de depleção/repleção, com camundongos Balb/c submetidos a 14 dias de depleção, seguido de 21 dias de repleção da vitamina. Após os 35 dias, os animais foram sacrificados, retirando-se sangue, rins, fígado, baço e intestino para quantificação de folato e avaliação histológica da mucosa intestinal. Todas as quantificações de folato foram feitas pelo método microbiológico. A melhor combinação de cepas (St. Thermophilus 34v + Lb. Plantarum 16cv) resultou na produção de 300 ng/mL de folato, sendo a temperatura de 42ºC melhor que 37ºC para a produção da vitamina. A produção de folato no leite na fermentação em pH controlado 6,0 foi 35% superior à observada no leite fermentado em pH livre. As concentrações de folato no baço e glóbulos vermelhos foram mais altas nos camundongos que ingeriram leite fermentado bioenriquecido (BFM) em relação aos demais grupos de animais. A relação vilosidade/cripta nos camundongos dos grupos BFM foi igual à observada nos animais que receberam leite suplementado com ácido fólico. Houve aumento da hemoglobina, hematócrito e hemácias nos camundongos que ingeriram BFM, evidenciando a bioeficácia do folato produzido. Esses resultados indicam que a produção de folato por bactérias láticas selecionadas em produtos fermentados pode ser uma boa alternativa para aumentar a ingestão de vitamina B9 pela população. / Folate deficiency is a public health problem that has been tackled through mandatory fortification of folic acid. However, excessive intake can cause unwanted side effects. The natural form of the vitamin produced by some strains of lactic acid bacteria (BAL) may be a safe alternative to increase folate intake by the population. The objective of this study was to select the best folate-producing BAL strains, to identify the best conditions for vitamin production and to evaluate the bioavailability of folate produced by the strains in fermented milk, using tests in animal models. The study was carried out with five strains of Streptococcus thermophilus (34v, 170v, 268v, 361v and 341 pc) and a strain of Lactobacillus plantarum (16 cv), all good folate producers. The conditions of production and the combination of strains that resulted in the best folate production were used to produce a biofermented milk (BFM), evaluating the bioavailability of the vitamin produced using a animal model of depletion/repletion with Balb/c mice submitted to 14 days of vitamin depletion, followed by 21 days of repletion. After 35 days, the animals were sacrificed, and blood, kidneys, liver, spleen and intestine were removed for quantification of folate and histological evaluation of the intestinal mucosa. All quantifications of folate were made by the microbiological method. The best combination of strains (St. thermophilus 34v + Lb. plantarum 16cv) resulted in the production of 300 ng / mL folate, the temperature being 42ºC better than 37ºC for vitamin production. The production of folate in milk in fermentation at controlled pH 6.0 was 35% higher than that observed in fermented milk without pH control. The villi/crypt ratio in the mice of the BFM group was the same as in animals receiving milk supplemented with folic acid. There was an increase in hemoglobin, hematocrit and red blood cells in the BFM group, evidencing the bioefficacy of the folate produced. These results indicate that folate production by selected lactic bacteria in fermented products may be a good alternative to increase vitamin B9 intake by the population.

Les céréales sont des aliments de base dans la plupart des pays africains. De nombreux aliments céréaliers africains sont fermentés naturellement. Comme la qualité nutritionnelle des aliments céréaliers pourrait être améliorée grâce aux fermentations spontanées, ces aliments pourraient être de bonnes sources de micronutriments. Cependant, différentes carences en micronutriments, comme les carences en folates par exemple, sont toujours fréquentes dans de nombreux pays africains où ces aliments sont consommés. Les carences en folates peuvent mener à différentes pathologies, comme des anémies mégaloblastiques et des malformations du tube neural par exemple. L’objectif de ce travail était d’évaluer le potentiel nutritionnel du microbiote du ben-saalga, un aliment fermenté traditionnel à base de mil consommé au Burkina Faso. Des gènes codant des enzymes impliquées dans différentes activités nutritionnelles ont été recherchés dans 50 métagénomes extraits d’échantillons collectés à Ouagadougou. Certains gènes n’ont jamais été détectés dans les métagénomes (e.g. les gènes impliqués dans la synthèse de caroténoides), alors que d’autres ont été fréquemment détectés (e.g. les gènes impliqués dans la synthèse de folates). En dépit du haut niveau de détection (80%) des deux gènes folP et folK, codant des enzymes impliquées dans la synthèse de folates, la teneur en folates du ben-saalga était plutôt faible (médiane : 0,5 µg/100g de base humide). Pour mieux comprendre l’impact de la fermentation sur la teneur en folates du ben-saalga, l’évolution de la teneur en folates a été mesurée durant la fermentation de bouillies produites en laboratoire. La fermentation n’a pas eu d’impact significatif sur la teneur en folates, ce qui pourrait être dû à une balance entre les micro-organismes auxotrophes et les micro-organismes prototrophes pour les folates. Dans le but de produire des bouillies fermentées à base de mil avec des teneurs en folates plus élevées, des cultures starters de micro-organismes producteurs de folates ont été utilisés pour inoculer des bouillies au laboratoire. Nous avons obtenu une bouillie avec une teneur en folates de 10 µg/100g de base humide, ce qui est significativement plus élevé que la teneur en folates du ben-saalga produit au Burkina Faso, mais qui reste trop faible sachant que le ben-saalga est fréquemment utilisé comme un aliment de complément à l’allaitement maternel pour les enfants de moins de cinq ans. / Cereals are staple foods in most African countries. Numerous African cereal-based foods are spontaneously fermented. As the nutritional quality of cereal products could be enhanced through spontaneous fermentation, these food products might be good sources of micronutrients. However, various micronutrients deficiencies, such as folate deficiency, are still common in many African countries where these food products are consumed. Folate deficiency leads to different pathologies, such as megaloblastic anemia and neural tube defects. The objective of this work was to evaluate the nutritional potential of the microbiota of ben-saalga, a traditional pearl-millet-based fermented food from Burkina Faso. Genes encoding enzymes involved in different nutritional activities were screened in 50 metagenomes extracted from samples collected in Ouagadougou. Certain genes were never detected in the metagenomes (e.g. genes involved in carotenoid synthesis) while other were frequently detected (e.g. genes involved in folate synthesis). In spite of the high rate of detection (80%) of both genes folP and folK, encoding enzymes involved in folate synthesis, the folate content in ben-saalga was rather low (median: 0.5 µg/100g fresh weight basis). To better understand the impact of the fermentation on the folate content of ben-saalga, the evolution of the folate content was measured during the fermentation of porridges produced in laboratory. The fermentation had no significant impact on the folate content, which may be due to a balance between folate auxotrophy and prototrophy. In order to produce pearl-millet based fermented porridges with higher folate content, starter cultures of folate-producing microorganisms were used to inoculate porridges in laboratory. We obtained a porridge with 10 µg of folate/100 g of fresh weight basis, which is significantly higher than the folate content of ben-saalga produced in Burkina Faso, but still too low knowing that ben-saalga is frequently used as a complementary food for children under five in Burkina Faso.