Due to the internationalisation of higher education, the use of English at higher education institutions has become widespread. Today an increasing number of students participate in courses with the local language as medium of instruction but with textbooks in English. These have been called parallel-language courses, because they are expected to facilitate learning disciplinary discourse in two languages: the local language and English. This thesis reports an exploration of Swedish students' reading and learning from English textbooks in parallel-language courses. The overarching aim was to investigate the relationship between the students' Swedish and English reading habits and reading proficiency, their academic biliteracy, and incidental learning of subject-specific terminology in English from reading. The study also set out to identify pedagogical solutions to facilitate students' reading and learning from reading in English. The investigation comprised four studies which utilised a variety of methods and approaches, both qualitative and quantitative. Participants were Swedish and British students of biology and Swedish students of English. The results show that many Swedish students are capable of reading and learning from texts in Swedish and English without experiencing serious difficulties, although additional support is required for the learning of English terminology. The findings also indicate that some students' difficulty when reading in English is not due to poor English language proficiency, but rather a range of other factors such as weak general literacy skills, low motivation, low subject and vocabulary knowledge, note-taking strategies, slow reading speed, and time. For some students, learning is also rendered difficult by their self-perceptions and beliefs about reading and learning. Based on my findings, I propose a range of practices for EAP and subject teachers to adopt in order to improve reading and learning in parallel-language courses. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Submitted. Paper 4: Submitted.</p><p> </p>

Esse estudo investiga a aprendizagem de vocabulário através da metodologia de Simulação Global (SG), visando mostrar sua utilização como estratégia pedagógica, criativa, interativa, motivadora e eficaz em aula de língua francesa. Tal aprendizagem é vista como um processo social, dinâmico e complexo, envolvendo um grande número de variáveis, dentre as quais as cognitivas e as afetivas desempenham um papel de extrema relevância, e que tem a sala de aula como o cenário social onde professor e alunos constroem conhecimento em conjunto através da negociação. Nesta pesquisa são analisadas as experiências anteriores de aprendizagem de língua estrangeira (língua francesa) dos aprendizes, suas concepções em relação ao ensino de língua estrangeira (LE) e, especialmente, em relação ao vocabulário, a experiência atual de aprendizagem com a SG, bem como a aprendizagem do vocabulário nesse contexto. Na SG, os alunos aprendem em contextos reais de comunicação. As atividades propostas nessa metodologia estimulam a criatividade e a tomada de decisões dos aprendizes e funcionam como mediadores da interação, proporcionando a construção de conhecimento lingüístico-comunicativo e cultural da língua francesa. Vinte e cinco alunos de nível intermediário em língua francesa participaram deste estudo. Os dados foram coletados em um curso de língua francesa, de quarenta e cinco horas, na Universidade Federal de Uberlândia/MG, entre dezembro 2007 e fevereiro de 2008. Os instrumentos utilizados para a pesquisa foram questionários e testes de vocabulário. Observando o processo de ensinoaprendizagem, verificamos que, durante as atividades de SG, os aprendizes construíram seus conhecimentos, conjunta e colaborativamente na língua francesa, interagindo e negociando com seus pares. Feita a análise dos dados, constatamos que a utilização da metodologia SG contribui de maneira significativa para a aprendizagem do vocabulário, pois os alunos memorizam e aprendem mais facilmente as palavras quando estas são (re)utilizadas nas diversas atividades criativas da Simulação Global. Este estudo apresenta, ainda, várias contribuições para a pesquisa em aprendizagem de LE (língua francesa), devido a seu formato inovador e dinâmico, que considera importante a influência dos aspectos cognitivos e sociais na aprendizagem do vocabulário de uma LE. / This study investigates vocabulary learning through the Global Simulating (SG) methodology, aiming at presenting its use as a pedagogical strategy, interaction mediation and creativity motivator in the French class, and its efficiency on vocabulary learning. Vocabulary learning is taken as a social dynamic and complex process involving a wide range of variables, within which cognitive and affective variables play an extremely important role. Such process considers the classroom to be a social environment, where learners and teacher build knowledge through negotiation. We analyze participants prior foreign language learning experiences, their conceptions about foreign language, and especially their conceptions about vocabulary. The latter is related to participants current experience within SG learning context, and we also analyze how experiences and conceptions interfere in the learners actions. The main hypothesis that guides this study is that SG stimulates creativity and learners decision making, which work as interaction mediators, providing French cultural linguistic and communicative knowledge building. Twenty-five intermediate level students of French took part in this research. Questionnaires and vocabulary tests were used for data colleting in a French class at the Federal University of Uberlândia (MG- Brazil), from December 2007 to February 2008, totalizing 45 hours. The data reveal that, during SGs activities, learners build knowledge jointly and collaboratively, interacting and negotiation with peers. The results suggest that SG use brings significant contribution to vocabulary learning as students memorize and acquire lexical items more easily when they are used and re-used in creative activities and simulations. The study brings contribution to the FL teaching and learning field because it is innovative, creative and dynamic, and it considers the influence of cognitive and social aspects in the process of vocabulary learning.

A leitura repetida de uma mesma história favorece a aprendizagem incidental de vocabulário. Possivelmente, um dos processos envolvidos nesta aprendizagem seja o responder por exclusão (seleção de um estímulo indefinido dentre estímulos conhecidos) que pode ocorrer a partir da exposição a palavras indefinidas em contextos naturais diversos, como a leitura de livros. Muitos estudos indicam que o nível de vocabulário prévio da criança interfere na aprendizagem de novas palavras. Além disso, outros processos estão envolvidos neste tipo de aprendizagem, mas ainda não há clareza quanto às variáveis que podem favorecê-la ou dificultá-la. Este trabalho investigou a aprendizagem de novos substantivos em contexto de leitura compartilhada de livro infantil, manipulando a seguinte variável independente: a apresentação ou não da função/utilidade dos referentes (objetos desconhecidos que apareceram nas ilustrações) no contexto da história para crianças de três e sete anos (com desenvolvimento típico). Além disso, foi investigado: a) se as crianças aprenderiam quatro pseudopalavras; b) se as pseudopalavras e seus referentes apresentados na história sustentariam o posterior responder por exclusão na apresentação de uma nova pseudopalavra, e c) se a aprendizagem se mantinha em testes de retenção posteriores. Para tanto, uma história infantil (especialmente elaborada para esta pesquisa) foi lida para 10 crianças de cada grupo etário (3 e 7 anos), para as quais foram apresentadas quatro pseudopalavras (substantivos). Para duas palavras, a história definiu a função dos referentes; para as outras duas palavras, não foi apresentada essa definição. Sondas de Aprendizagem, Exclusão, Nomeação e Descrição da função foram aplicadas logo após a Fase de Leitura e uma semana após, verificando a aprendizagem imediata das pseudopalavras e a consolidação desta aprendizagem. Apenas o grupo de crianças mais velhas respondeu de forma consistente às sondas de exclusão. Os participantes de ambos os grupos demonstraram terem aprendido parcialmente as pseudopalavras apresentadas, desempenho que se manteve uma semana depois. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre as pseudopalavras que haviam sido apresentadas com uma função específica daquelas que não tinham função. Parte das crianças mais velhas descreveu adequadamente a função das pseudopalavras. Pesquisas futuras devem investigar melhor o papel da apresentação da função/utilidade de uma palavra e de outras dicas contextuais neste tipo de aprendizagem. / Reading the same book more than once induces an improvement in the incidental vocabulary learning. One of the vocabulary learning process is denominated responding by exclusion (selection of an undefined stimulus among known stimuli) that may occur incidentally, when undefined words are exposed in natural contexts, such as shared book reading. Many studies indicate that childs prior vocabulary levels interfere in the process of learning a new word. Many processes are involved in vocabulary learning from shared book reading, and a series of variables can affect the learning process positively or negatively. This study investigated the learning of new nouns in the context of shared book reading manipulating the presentation of the function/utility of the referents (unknown objects that appeared in the illustrations) in the context of the story to three and seven years old children (with typical development). Furthermore, this study investigated: a) if children would be able to learn four pseudowords; b) if the pseudowords presented in the story would sustain the subsequent exclusion responding in the presentation of a new pseudoword, and c) if the learning would endure in later retention tests. Therefore, a children\'s story book (especially made for this research) was read to ten children in each age group (3 and 7 years old), in which four pseudowords were presented. Only two of the four words had their referents function explicitly defined in the story while the others did not. Learning probes, Exclusion probes, Nomination and function description probes were applied firstly after the reading phase and also a week later, checking the immediate learning and its consolidation. Only the group of older children responded consistently to the exclusion probes. Participants in both groups showed they have partially learned the pseudowords presented, and the results remained the same a week later. No significant differences were found between the pseudowords that had been presented with a specific function and those which had not, part of the older children properly described the function of the former. Futher researches should investigate more the role of the presentation of the function/utility of a word and other contextual clues in this type of learning.

El presente estudio trata sobre el aprendizaje de vocabulario de español como lengua extranjera (ELE) en la escuela sueca e investiga si el uso de las aplicaciones didácticas, para los teléfonos inteligentes, que sirven para aprender vocabulario podría ser un apoyo al aprendizaje de nuevas palabras para alumnos en el paso 1, tanto en la educación secundaria como en el bachillerato. También investiga en qué medida los profesores de ELE utilizan las aplicaciones didácticas de vocabulario para que los alumnos puedan aprender nuevas palabras. Para hacer el estudio se ha realizado dos pruebas de vocabulario en cuatros clases del paso 1 en escuelas suecas en las cuales la mitad aprendió con apoyo de una aplicación didáctica mientras que la otra mitad aprendió con la estrategia tradicional, o sea, con listas de vocabulario. Además, se ha entrevistado a tres profesoras suecas de ELE sobre su uso de aplicaciones didácticas en su enseñanza. Los resultados muestran que los alumnos que utilizaron la aplicación didáctica para aprender vocabulario recordaban mejor las palabras que los alumnos que las aprendieron con la estrategia tradicional. Sin embargo, las tres profesoras informantes en la investigación nunca usan aplicaciones didácticas en su enseñanza ya que les falta experiencia del entorno digital. El análisis indica que, aunque el aprendizaje con apoyo de aplicaciones didácticas es efectivo para aprender vocabulario y hay investigadores que lo avalan y recomiendan a los profesores que utilicen aplicaciones para teléfonos inteligentes, los profesores no las utilizan debido a que tienen poco conocimiento sobre recursos técnicos. Así, la conclusión es que aprender vocabulario con aplicaciones didácticas se muestra más efectivo que aprender con la estrategia tradicional, y que los profesores suecos necesitan formación en el entorno digital para que puedan utilizar aplicaciones móviles en su enseñanza. / The present study deals with vocabulary learning of Spanish as a foreign language and investigates if the use of didactic smartphone applications focused on vocabulary learning could help the learning of new words in Spanish for students at level 1, both in secondary schools and in upper secondary schools. The study also investigates to what extent the teachers of Spanish as a foreign language use didactic vocabulary applications in order for the students to learn new words. To conduct the study two vocabulary tests have been made in four classes at level 1 in Swedish schools. Half the students learnt the vocabulary with the use of a didactic application, while the other half learnt it by using the traditional strategy with lists of words. Conversations were also held with three Swedish teachers in Spanish as a foreign language about their use of didactic applications in their teaching. The results show that the students that used the didactic application to learn the vocabulary remembered the words better than the students that learnt the vocabulary by using the traditional strategy. Nevertheless, the three teachers in the investigation never use didactic applications in their teaching since they lack experience of technical tools. The analysis indicates that even though learning with the use of didactic applications is good for vocabulary learning and that investigators recommend teachers to use mobile applications in their teaching, the teachers do not do it because of their little knowledge about technical resources. Hence, the conclusion is that learning vocabulary with didactic applications is more successful than learning vocabulary by using the traditional strategy, but also that Swedish teachers in Spanish as a foreign language need practice in the technical environment so that they can use mobile applications in their teaching.

A leitura repetida de uma mesma história favorece a aprendizagem incidental de vocabulário. Possivelmente, um dos processos envolvidos nesta aprendizagem seja o responder por exclusão (seleção de um estímulo indefinido dentre estímulos conhecidos) que pode ocorrer a partir da exposição a palavras indefinidas em contextos naturais diversos, como a leitura de livros. Muitos estudos indicam que o nível de vocabulário prévio da criança interfere na aprendizagem de novas palavras. Além disso, outros processos estão envolvidos neste tipo de aprendizagem, mas ainda não há clareza quanto às variáveis que podem favorecê-la ou dificultá-la. Este trabalho investigou a aprendizagem de novos substantivos em contexto de leitura compartilhada de livro infantil, manipulando a seguinte variável independente: a apresentação ou não da função/utilidade dos referentes (objetos desconhecidos que apareceram nas ilustrações) no contexto da história para crianças de três e sete anos (com desenvolvimento típico). Além disso, foi investigado: a) se as crianças aprenderiam quatro pseudopalavras; b) se as pseudopalavras e seus referentes apresentados na história sustentariam o posterior responder por exclusão na apresentação de uma nova pseudopalavra, e c) se a aprendizagem se mantinha em testes de retenção posteriores. Para tanto, uma história infantil (especialmente elaborada para esta pesquisa) foi lida para 10 crianças de cada grupo etário (3 e 7 anos), para as quais foram apresentadas quatro pseudopalavras (substantivos). Para duas palavras, a história definiu a função dos referentes; para as outras duas palavras, não foi apresentada essa definição. Sondas de Aprendizagem, Exclusão, Nomeação e Descrição da função foram aplicadas logo após a Fase de Leitura e uma semana após, verificando a aprendizagem imediata das pseudopalavras e a consolidação desta aprendizagem. Apenas o grupo de crianças mais velhas respondeu de forma consistente às sondas de exclusão. Os participantes de ambos os grupos demonstraram terem aprendido parcialmente as pseudopalavras apresentadas, desempenho que se manteve uma semana depois. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre as pseudopalavras que haviam sido apresentadas com uma função específica daquelas que não tinham função. Parte das crianças mais velhas descreveu adequadamente a função das pseudopalavras. Pesquisas futuras devem investigar melhor o papel da apresentação da função/utilidade de uma palavra e de outras dicas contextuais neste tipo de aprendizagem. / Reading the same book more than once induces an improvement in the incidental vocabulary learning. One of the vocabulary learning process is denominated responding by exclusion (selection of an undefined stimulus among known stimuli) that may occur incidentally, when undefined words are exposed in natural contexts, such as shared book reading. Many studies indicate that childs prior vocabulary levels interfere in the process of learning a new word. Many processes are involved in vocabulary learning from shared book reading, and a series of variables can affect the learning process positively or negatively. This study investigated the learning of new nouns in the context of shared book reading manipulating the presentation of the function/utility of the referents (unknown objects that appeared in the illustrations) in the context of the story to three and seven years old children (with typical development). Furthermore, this study investigated: a) if children would be able to learn four pseudowords; b) if the pseudowords presented in the story would sustain the subsequent exclusion responding in the presentation of a new pseudoword, and c) if the learning would endure in later retention tests. Therefore, a children\'s story book (especially made for this research) was read to ten children in each age group (3 and 7 years old), in which four pseudowords were presented. Only two of the four words had their referents function explicitly defined in the story while the others did not. Learning probes, Exclusion probes, Nomination and function description probes were applied firstly after the reading phase and also a week later, checking the immediate learning and its consolidation. Only the group of older children responded consistently to the exclusion probes. Participants in both groups showed they have partially learned the pseudowords presented, and the results remained the same a week later. No significant differences were found between the pseudowords that had been presented with a specific function and those which had not, part of the older children properly described the function of the former. Futher researches should investigate more the role of the presentation of the function/utility of a word and other contextual clues in this type of learning.

Esse estudo investiga a aprendizagem de vocabulário através da metodologia de Simulação Global (SG), visando mostrar sua utilização como estratégia pedagógica, criativa, interativa, motivadora e eficaz em aula de língua francesa. Tal aprendizagem é vista como um processo social, dinâmico e complexo, envolvendo um grande número de variáveis, dentre as quais as cognitivas e as afetivas desempenham um papel de extrema relevância, e que tem a sala de aula como o cenário social onde professor e alunos constroem conhecimento em conjunto através da negociação. Nesta pesquisa são analisadas as experiências anteriores de aprendizagem de língua estrangeira (língua francesa) dos aprendizes, suas concepções em relação ao ensino de língua estrangeira (LE) e, especialmente, em relação ao vocabulário, a experiência atual de aprendizagem com a SG, bem como a aprendizagem do vocabulário nesse contexto. Na SG, os alunos aprendem em contextos reais de comunicação. As atividades propostas nessa metodologia estimulam a criatividade e a tomada de decisões dos aprendizes e funcionam como mediadores da interação, proporcionando a construção de conhecimento lingüístico-comunicativo e cultural da língua francesa. Vinte e cinco alunos de nível intermediário em língua francesa participaram deste estudo. Os dados foram coletados em um curso de língua francesa, de quarenta e cinco horas, na Universidade Federal de Uberlândia/MG, entre dezembro 2007 e fevereiro de 2008. Os instrumentos utilizados para a pesquisa foram questionários e testes de vocabulário. Observando o processo de ensinoaprendizagem, verificamos que, durante as atividades de SG, os aprendizes construíram seus conhecimentos, conjunta e colaborativamente na língua francesa, interagindo e negociando com seus pares. Feita a análise dos dados, constatamos que a utilização da metodologia SG contribui de maneira significativa para a aprendizagem do vocabulário, pois os alunos memorizam e aprendem mais facilmente as palavras quando estas são (re)utilizadas nas diversas atividades criativas da Simulação Global. Este estudo apresenta, ainda, várias contribuições para a pesquisa em aprendizagem de LE (língua francesa), devido a seu formato inovador e dinâmico, que considera importante a influência dos aspectos cognitivos e sociais na aprendizagem do vocabulário de uma LE. / This study investigates vocabulary learning through the Global Simulating (SG) methodology, aiming at presenting its use as a pedagogical strategy, interaction mediation and creativity motivator in the French class, and its efficiency on vocabulary learning. Vocabulary learning is taken as a social dynamic and complex process involving a wide range of variables, within which cognitive and affective variables play an extremely important role. Such process considers the classroom to be a social environment, where learners and teacher build knowledge through negotiation. We analyze participants prior foreign language learning experiences, their conceptions about foreign language, and especially their conceptions about vocabulary. The latter is related to participants current experience within SG learning context, and we also analyze how experiences and conceptions interfere in the learners actions. The main hypothesis that guides this study is that SG stimulates creativity and learners decision making, which work as interaction mediators, providing French cultural linguistic and communicative knowledge building. Twenty-five intermediate level students of French took part in this research. Questionnaires and vocabulary tests were used for data colleting in a French class at the Federal University of Uberlândia (MG- Brazil), from December 2007 to February 2008, totalizing 45 hours. The data reveal that, during SGs activities, learners build knowledge jointly and collaboratively, interacting and negotiation with peers. The results suggest that SG use brings significant contribution to vocabulary learning as students memorize and acquire lexical items more easily when they are used and re-used in creative activities and simulations. The study brings contribution to the FL teaching and learning field because it is innovative, creative and dynamic, and it considers the influence of cognitive and social aspects in the process of vocabulary learning.

El vocabulario es una parte esencial en el aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera. Aunque el estudio de vocabulario es un proceso complejo, existen estrategias de aprendizaje que pueden facilitar este proceso. El propósito de este estudio es hacer una revisión literaria de diferentes investigaciones sobre las estrategias de aprendizaje que utilizan los alumnos para aprender palabras en la asignatura de lengua extranjera. Los resultados obtenidos mediante una comparación de dos estudios empíricos, uno realizado en Suecia y otro en España, mostraron que tanto los alumnos suecos como los españoles solían usar la mayor parte del tiempo estrategias clásicas de aprendizaje que conllevan la repetición de las palabras, tanto de forma escrita como leída, junto con su traducción. La conclusión a la que llegan los autores es que los profesores deben promover que los alumnos utilicen estrategias de aprendizaje variadas. / Vocabulary is an essential part of learning a foreign language. Even though vocabulary studies are complex, there are learning strategies that can ease the process. The aim of this study is to make a literature review of research concerning the learning strategies used by students to learn vocabulary in a foreign language. The results obtained through a comparison of two empirical studies, one made in Sweden and the other one in Spain, showed that both Swedish and Spanish students mostly used classic learning strategies that consist of repeating the words, in writing or reading form, together with its translation. The authors reached the conclusion that the teachers should encourage the students to vary their use of learning strategies.

The study is based on the answers of 106 international students of Spanish as a foreign language from three different private schools in Madrid. The purpose of this paper is to study, firstly, whether or how the intrinsic motivation of adult Spanish learners, their choice of strategies and the time they spend on vocabulary learning outside of the school, are influenced by the their age, gender or mother tongue. Secondly, the aim of this study is to identify whether learners with a higher degree of intrinsic motivation use more of their free time on vocabulary learning and whether they use a greater variety of vocabulary learning strategies than learners with a lesser degree of intrinsic motivation. Apart from the learning intensity and strategic variety, there is the aim of finding particular strategies preferred by the two different motivation groups. The hypothesis regarding the first part of the study is that, while gender and mother tongue probably won't influence the students' intrinsic motivation or the time they spend on vocabulary learning outside of the classroom, age, and in that sense, responsibility, will. Also, learners from different parts of the world are likely to apply different strategies in order to learn and remember the vocabulary so the mother tongue is important regarding their choice of strategies. The hypothesis regarding the second part of this study is that learners with a high degree of intrinsic motivation will use more of their time on vocabulary learning, they will apply a greater variety of vocabulary learning strategies and are more likely to use mnemotechnics and look for conversation possibilities than learners with a lesser degree of intrinsic motivation. The evidence from this empirical study partly supports the hypothesis. Gender had influence on the participants' intrinsic motivation. The evidence suggests that female learners have a higher degree of intrinsic motivation than the male learners. Correlations were found between the metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies of the Romanic and Germanic language group suggesting that learners with a Romanic mother tongue tend to use more metacognitive strategies than any other language group of the research. As for the Germanic mother tongue, the evidence suggest that learners belonging to this group tend to use more cognitive strategies than learners with a Romanic mother tongue. Also, the research results suggest that learners with a higher degree of intrinsic motivation use more time on vocabulary learning. Furthermore, the results indicate that learners with a higher degree of the intrinsic motivation tend to use more memory strategies than those learners with a lower degree of intrinsic motivation.

The main aim of the present study is to investigate whether there is a difference in retentionbetween two groups of Swedish second language learners of English when they are faced withidioms in a written context or in the form of still pictures. The subjects of the investigation aretwo different groups at a high school in Sweden. Both Group 1 and 2 consist of 24 subjectseach. For this study, 15 idioms were randomly selected. To Group 1, the idioms werepresented in a written context and to Group 2 the idioms were presented in the form of stillpictures. The subjects were given a pre-test and two post-tests to measure their retention.Moreover, the subjects were given a questionnaire in order to learn more about theirperception of idioms. I believe that, on the immediate post-test, Group 1 (the “written contextgroup”) did better than Group 2 (the “still pictures group”). Nevertheless, on the delayed posttest(testing long-term retention), Group 2 remembered more idioms than Group 1. But, it isimportant to note that contextualization of L2 idioms using written context and/or using stillpictures resulted, in general, to be effective strategies for the retention of idioms.

The aim of this essay is to distinguish whether the activity of playing video and online computer games as a leisure activity could be considered to be a learning situation. With the focus on vocabulary, this study investigates the possibility that gamers could improve their language proficiency while playing video and online computer games. The methodology is based on qualitative observations (Patel &amp; Davidson 2011) and on interviews with seven players of five different games. The observations mainly considered the vocabulary used in the games and how the players used the English language while playing. The interviews are constructed with the methodology mentioned by Kylén (2004). The interview questions aimed to answer if the players had been noticing an improvement of their vocabulary. The data are mainly acquired from the observations and interviews. The background sections build on studies relating to computer-based language learning and on the previous research on ELF, primarily from Barbara Seidlhofer (2011). Even though the data acquired from the observations and interviews are limited, it is apparent that video and online computer games have a noticeable impact on language development, regarding vocabulary. The main conclusion of this study is that the games do not influence the players’ language proficiency as considerably as the engaging in the functions in conjunction with the games.