According to cognitive theories of anxiety, anxiogenic schemata are a set of beliefs, rules, and assumptions that influence how those with anxiety make inferences and interpret threat. It is hypothesized that each anxiety disorder has a unique anxiogenic schema. This report describes the development of the Cognitive Vulnerability Schemas Questionnaire for Anxious Youth, an instrument used to measure anxiogenic schemata in youth aged 7-17 years old. Factor analyses of the scale demonstrated two empirically distinct and relatively stable dimensions of anxiogenic schema. The two identified factors of anxiogenic schema were: (1) Generalized Anxiety and Social Phobia Schema, and (2) Separation Anxiety Schema. The measure demonstrated good psychometric properties on a range of indices of reliability and validity. Results indicated that scores on the questionnaire subscales predicted anxiety symptomology. Regression analyses showed that both factors were predictors of anxiety symptomology, however did not predict anxiety diagnosis. Significant differences in the Cognitive Vulnerability Schemas Questionnaire for Anxious Youth subscales were demonstrated between patients with clinically significant Generalized Anxiety Symptoms, Social Phobia Symptoms, and Separation Anxiety Symptoms. The implications of these findings for theories of cognitive vulnerability and schema development in youth are discussed. / text

Depression is a serious condition that affects a significant proportion of the population and causes substantial life impairment (Kessler et al., 2003). Cognitive models of depression vulnerability (e.g., Teasdale, 1988) posit that information processing biases for negative and positive stimuli play a critical role in the disorder. Change in negative thinking in response to dysphoric moods is referred to as cognitive reactivity and has been shown to be a risk factor for future increases in depression (e.g., Beevers & Carver, 2003; Segal et al., 2006). Interestingly, recent behavioral genetics research indicates that certain genes may influence cognitive factors associated with depression. The short allele of a polymorphism of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) has been associated with increased risk for depression in the context of life stress (Caspi et al., 2003); however, the psychological mechanisms that increase depression risk for short 5-HTTLPR allele-carriers have not been definitively identified. Recent work has begun to reveal an association between the 5-HTTLPR and cognitive factors associated with depression such as attention bias for emotional information (Beevers et al., 2007) and negative thinking style (Hayden et al., 2007). A pilot study (n = 156) revealed an association between 5-HTTLPR and cognitive reactivity for attention bias for happy faces. The current study (n = 180) extended and improved upon the pilot study’s methodology and examined the relationship between the 5-HTTLPR and cognitive reactivity for attention to sad and happy faces as well as cognitive reactivity for dysfunctional attitudes. Cognitive variables were assessed after a neutral mood induction and after a sad mood induction at two laboratory sessions separated by at least 24 hours. There was a significant association between the 5-HTTLPR and cognitive reactivity for attention bias for emotional faces among Caucasian participants. Specifically, the short allele was associated with increased bias for emotional faces after the sad mood induction compared to the neutral mood induction. There was a linear relationship between number of short alleles possessed by participants and increase in bias for emotional information. The 5-HTTLPR was not significantly associated with cognitive reactivity for dysfunctional attitudes, but the effect was in the expected direction. Results are discussed in the context of recent neuroimaging research and plasticity models of behavior genetics. Implications for a model of depression vulnerability integrating genetic, neural, and cognitive factors and future directions for similar behavioral genetics studies are discussed. / text

In the semi-arid Limari­ River basin, Region of Coquimbo in northern Chile sixty percent of years receive less than the long-term average annual precipitation, and dry spells tend to be multi-year. Below-normal precipitation is not always associated with ENSO cycles, but shows a high correlation to El Nino 3 region sea surface temperature.Since early during the colonial period, land in Coquimbo was utilized as a source of minerals, meat, wheat, and timber for smelters. These extractive productive processes caused the destruction of most of the natural vegetation. Impacts of past use have persisted until today and the region is still affected by intense degradation. Land ownership was originally held in haciendas and communes. Analysis of Landsat satellite imagery shows that vegetation response increases marginally during rainy years in both land tenure regimes. Most of the increase is explained by the planting of rainfed wheat and the response of less palatable native species such as Gutierrezia spp. Hence, the capacity of natural vegetation to respond to above normal precipitation is limited on both private and communal lands.Twenty five percent of the land belongs to agricultural communes, and families in these communes are considered to be poor or indigent. Three agricultural communes were surveyed, and a vulnerability index was constructed based on the community right-holders' responses. Findings show that access to productive resources (i.e., land, water, technology, credit) is a key determinant of differential vulnerability. Vulnerability is defined here as the capacity of an individual or a community to adapt (or cope, or respond) to drought. Differences in access within communities are caused by the inequitable distribution of land by the communes' boards of directors in the recent past. Access to agricultural credit is limited because families do not have collateral. Vulnerability is also conditioned by access to water, greenhouses, irrigation technology, chemicals, and improved seed. The most vulnerable families depend on off-farm employment provided by private agriculture. Governmental responses are reactive based on emergency relief rather than proactive: there is no drought long-term planning, nor consideration of differential levels of vulnerability levels among different segments of the population.

This biocultural study of infant health and the sensitivity of maternal caretaking strategies was conducted between November 2004 and February 2006 among Datoga, a semi-nomadic pastoral group living in north central Tanzania. A sample of 40 mother-infant dyads were selected to examine the political economy of household constraints and how maternal decisions interact with infant biology to 'embody' social inequality and create patterns of health and illness among young Datoga children. The primary objectives of the research were: 1) Identify the critical periods within early childhood where interactions between household production, nutrition, and health status increase the vulnerability of Datoga infants; 2) Identify how caregivers perceive of changes in infant health and how they use this information to balance allocation of resources between caregiving and household production; 3) Examine how sociopolitical marginalization is impacting Datoga households by determining the intrahousehold variables that act most strongly to constrain women's ability to care for children; 4) Identify how household ecology and caretaking interact with infant development to create patterns of resilience within the mother-infant dyad. The findings from the study indicate that the socioeconomic marginalization of Datoga has severe consequences for child health and well-being. These consequences are evident in the relationship between 'idioms of distress' used to express feelings of vulnerability and disparities in health among both Datoga children and adults. Thus, more attention needs to be paid to the 'socialization' of disease in local contexts and the ways in which the marginalization of Datoga is influencing their exposure to risks for poor health outcomes. Nonetheless, the sensitivity of maternal response has a positive influence on patterns of child health among Datoga, even in the most marginal conditions. Although the cumulative effects of maternal condition during pregnancy and post-natal feeding practices are acting to create patterns of poor nutrition and high illness rates among Datoga children, other variables (such as the amount of time spent in close proximity with the infant) can shift the negative cascade of events and mediate the long-term consequences of even severe adversity.

Waterloo Region (population 470,000) is the eleventh largest urban region in Canada (2006 Census tract). Within this region, in 2007, 2,831 homeless people defined as commonly living or sleeping in indoor or outdoor spaces not intended for inhabitation used emergency shelters (Homelessness and Housing Group, 2008; Regional Municipality of Waterloo Region, 2007). It is expected that individuals who have inadequate or no permanent housing are particularly exposed and sensitive to environmental conditions such as extreme heat, cold events and poor air quality. Under climate change, it can be expected that the frequency of extreme events and days when air quality fails to meet healthy guidelines may increase. A wide survey of literature from environmental issues related to homelessness in first world countries has demonstrated that there is a research gap in understanding how urban citizens experiencing or facing homelessness adapt to environmental change. Therefore, this research addresses this gap by using both the vulnerability approach to local climate change assessments, and participatory action research to better understand the specificities of adaptation, the available services and future institutional strategies that could enhance the lives of this vulnerable population in relation to local environmental change. The conclusion is that people experiencing homelessness in Waterloo Region have a low vulnerability to climate related events as the social service system which they use is well developed and the climate related events are not severe. However, the vulnerability may increase in the future if service provision changes or if there is an increase in the duration, intensity and frequency of precipitation (rain) or extreme heat days.

No description available.

Climate change research is undergoing a monumental shift, from an almost exclusive focus on mitigation, and the reduction of greenhouse gases, to adaptation, and identifying the ways in which nations, communities and sectors might best respond to the reality of a changing climate. Vulnerability assessments are now being employed to identify the conditions to which socio ecological systems are exposed-sensitive and their capacity to adapt. Work has been conducted across a range of geographical locations and systems as diverse as healthcare and mining. There are however, few examples of analyses incorporating an assessment of the multiple climatic and non-climatic stressors to which agricultural producers are exposed. This thesis examines farm-level vulnerability to climate change of agricultural producers from the Eastern Bay of Plenty, New Zealand. The study area has a diverse agricultural economy, founded upon pastoral farming (dairy and drystock) and kiwifruit. This dependence on agricultural production, and the likely influence of expected changes in climatic conditions in the future provided a unique setting in which to develop a place-based case study exploring vulnerability to future climatic variability and change. Using a mixed methods approach, including semi-structured interviews and temporal analogues, a conceptual framework of farm-level vulnerability was developed and applied. The application of the framework was conducted through an empirical study that relied on engagement with and insights from producers who identified current exposure-sensitivity and adaptive capacity. It is shown that pastoral farmers and kiwifruit growers are exposed-sensitive to a range of climatic and non-climatic conditions that affect production, yields and farm income and returns. It demonstrates that producers have in turn, developed a range of short- and long-term adaptive strategies in order to better manage climatic conditions. It shows that these responses are varied, and are not made in response to climatic conditions alone, illustrating the need to consider other, multiple stimuli. An assessment of future vulnerability is presented, based on the empirical work and the identification of those drivers of vulnerability that are likely to be of concern and that will shape the capacity of farmers and growers to respond to climatic variability and change. The thesis as a whole not only provides a place-based case study on the vulnerability of farmers and kiwifruit growers in eastern New Zealand, but also demonstrates the need to engage with producers in order to develop an understanding of the complex ways in which climatic conditions interact with non-climatic stimuli beyond the farm-gate to influence vulnerability to climatic variability and change, both now and in the future.

Coastal and river environments are exposed to a number of natural hazards that have the potential to negatively affect both human and natural environments. The purpose of this research is to explain that significant vulnerabilities to seismic hazards exist within coastal and river environments and that coasts and rivers, past and present, have played as significant a role as seismic, engineering or socio-economic factors in determining the impacts and recovery patterns of a city following a seismic hazard event. An interdisciplinary approach was used to investigate the vulnerability of coastal and river areas in the city of Christchurch, New Zealand, following the Canterbury Earthquake Sequence, which began on the 4th of September 2010. This information was used to identify the characteristics of coasts and rivers that make them more susceptible to earthquake induced hazards including liquefaction, lateral spreading, flooding, landslides and rock falls. The findings of this research are applicable to similar coastal and river environments elsewhere in the world where seismic hazards are also of significant concern. An interdisciplinary approach was used to document and analyse the coastal and river related effects of the Canterbury earthquake sequence on Christchurch city in order to derive transferable lessons that can be used to design less vulnerable urban communities and help to predict seismic vulnerabilities in other New Zealand and international urban coastal and river environments for the future. Methods used to document past and present features and earthquake impacts on coasts and rivers in Christchurch included using maps derived from Geographical Information Systems (GIS), photographs, analysis of interviews from coastal, river and engineering experts, and analysis of secondary data on seismicity, liquefaction potential, geology, and planning statutes. The Canterbury earthquake sequence had a significant effect on Christchurch, particularly around rivers and the coast. This was due to the susceptibility of rivers to lateral spreading and the susceptibility of the eastern Christchurch and estuarine environments to liquefaction. The collapse of river banks and the extensive cracking, tilting and subsidence that accompanied liquefaction, lateral spreading and rock falls caused damage to homes, roads, bridges and lifelines. This consequently blocked transportation routes, interrupted electricity and water lines, and damaged structures built in their path. This study found that there are a number of physical features of coastal and river environments from the past and the present that have induced vulnerabilities to earthquake hazards. The types of sediments found beneath eastern Christchurch are unconsolidated fine sands, silts, peats and gravels. Together with the high water tables located beneath the city, these deposits made the area particularly susceptible to liquefaction and liquefaction-induced lateral spreading, when an earthquake of sufficient size shook the ground. It was both past and present coastal and river processes that deposited the types of sediments that are easily liquefied during an earthquake. Eastern Christchurch was once a coastal and marine environment 6000 years ago when the shoreline reached about 6 km inland of its present day location, which deposited fine sand and silts over this area. The region was also exposed to large braided rivers and smaller spring fed rivers, both of which have laid down further fine sediments over the following thousands of years. A significant finding of this study is the recognition that the Canterbury earthquake sequence has exacerbated existing coastal and river hazards and that assessments and monitoring of these changes will be an important component of Christchurch’s future resilience to natural hazards. In addition, patterns of recovery following the Canterbury earthquakes are highlighted to show that coasts and rivers are again vulnerable to earthquakes through their ability to recovery. This city’s capacity to incorporate resilience into the recovery efforts is also highlighted in this study. Coastal and river areas have underlying physical characteristics that make them increasingly vulnerable to the effects of earthquake hazards, which have not typically been perceived as a ‘coastal’ or ‘river’ hazard. These findings enhance scientific and management understanding of the effects that earthquakes can have on coastal and river environments, an area of research that has had modest consideration to date. This understanding is important from a coastal and river hazard management perspective as concerns for increased human development around coastlines and river margins, with a high seismic risk, continue to grow.

The susceptibility of individuals to illness and disease is greatly influenced by context specific social determinants of health (SDH), yet there is a dearth of literature pertaining to SDH among refugees, particularly those residing in urban areas. The purpose of this study was to identify and generate empirical evidence on SDH among female refugees in Malaysia. It focused specifically on Rohingya refugees, a stateless and persecuted Muslim minority from Myanmar. Intersectionality formed the theoretical foundation of the study, which utilized a qualitative research design and employed an exploratory, applied research approach. Document review provided background and contextual information for primary data, which were collected using semi-structured interviews and analysed using thematic analysis. The study was undertaken in affiliation with the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) and had two primary outputs: it provided UNHCR with information and recommendations to inform context-specific program and policy development, and it generated rich empirical findings that contribute to the nascent evidence base on SDH in the context of forced migration. Results indicate that key factors affecting the health and wellbeing of Rohingya women include: their journey from Myanmar to Malaysia, income, employment, food security, transportation, the physical environment, UNHCR, security issues, education, religion, healthcare, and social capital/the social safety net. These interacted, overlapped and compounded each other, forming a ‘web of interrelated factors’ that affected participants’ health. Findings provide insight into the instrumental role of the sociopolitical context in structuring the lives of urban refugee women, and emphasize the importance of extending current discourse beyond refugee women’s needs and vulnerabilities to consider their resilience and agency in situations of significant hardship. / Graduate / 0573

Climatic variability and change can have profound impacts on human societies and wildlife habitats. Extreme events and natural hazards such as floods, droughts, and windstorms, can lead to loss of lives, economic damages, and disruption in livelihoods, infrastructure, and ecosystems. These impacts depend on the intensity and the magnitude of the hazard and the characteristics of the society hit by the disaster. Investigating and predicting adverse effects of frequent climatic hazards are essential for policy makers and resource managers to plan for the future and be prepared for the consequences of these types of natural disasters. Vulnerability assessments provide a framework to detect the potential threats by exploring the nature of the hazard as well as the political, economic, and social conditions that are expected to affect the capacity of communities to cope with or adapt to that hazard. This research involves the development of a framework for vulnerability assessment of flood and drought at the river basin, sub-catchment, and community scale. The vulnerability assessment method is composed of three major components of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. Several indicators are identified to represent these major components of the vulnerability structure. The developed vulnerability assessment has then been implemented on the Upper Ottawa River Basin, Canada. A Geographic Information System-based methodology is used to manage a wide variety of data, to aggregate and integrate several indicators including socio-economic and biophysical indicators, and to visualize the final vulnerability map. The studied areas are categorized in three levels of the vulnerability, high, moderate, and low. North Bay is identified as highly vulnerable to both flood and drought risk. Noranda is also classified as a highly flood-vulnerable area. The vulnerability assessment will provide a valuable insight for mitigation planning as well as prioritizing resource allocation for decision makers. In this research, the location and adequacy of the hydrometric monitoring stations in the Upper Ottawa River Basin are evaluated using the vulnerability map for optimum design of monitoring network.