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Background The Sustainable Development Goals provides targets that foster greater mobilization of global resources and efforts. SDG Goal 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages, sets targets for the reduction of maternal mortality rates and mortality rates for children under-five. Health insurance coverage is thought to provide access to needed primary services to accomplish these goals. West Africa is the region of the world with the highest burden of disease and it is unclear if insurance coverage does provide needed access to services. The articles within this thesis examine whether or not health insurance provides greater access to primary services for mothers and children, while determining other factors to be considered. Method For the systematic review, we carried out a search on four databases. Eligible studies included mother’s under-five and children in West Africa. The primary outcome was insurance impacting the rate of utilization of services. Data was extracted using standardized form, and methodology was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute forms. Our cross-sectional study used DHS data from 10 West African countries. Data was cleaned, weighed and analyzed using Stata. The independent variable was health insurance, and the variable of outcome was making a minimum of four antenatal care visits. Data was analyzed using binary logistic regression and we presented results using crude and adjusted odds ratio at 95% confidence interval. Results The narrative synthesis was chosen for the review. We found that in most study settings, insurance increased access to services. The cross-sectional study found that women with insurance were more likely to make the recommended number of ANC visits than their uninsured counterparts (aOR [95% CI] =1.55 [1.37-1.73]). Socio-economic status also impact access to services. Conclusion Health insurance does increase access to services and should be pursued as a viable long-term policy, but access is still dependent on socio-economic status. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, burden of disease of the region and systems challenges, other solutions should be pursued in the near-term. Future investigation should consider the role of equity as a guiding principle.

In a world of imbalance, food consumption exhibits great diversity among regions and countries. Although farmers in developed economies benefit from up-to-date agricultural technology and produce much more than they consume, households in the developing world are still combating food insecurity. This dissertation is composed of two manuscripts. One is about consumption in developing countries, while the other is related to promoting agricultural production in a developed economy. Chapter 1 applies a three-stage demand system to nationally representative household survey data to identify food demand behavior with an emphasis on food staples in two West Africa countries ‒ Niger and Nigeria. The third stage of the demand system offers demand elasticities of specific staple items. Instead of treating the population as a whole, the study distinguishes rural and urban households and households of different welfare status. Results confirm the complexity of the food and staples demand between rural/urban areas and among welfare quintiles. Therefore, researchers and policymakers should consider not only the average demand response but also its distribution among households. In addition to demand elasticities, the effects of household demographic characteristics on the structure of food consumption are also obtained. Chapter 2 estimates the rates of return to Virginia's public expenditure on agricultural research and extension (RandE) during 1949-2016 and attempts to address the ad hoc model selection problem common in previous studies. Among the econometric modeling strategies in previous literature, Bayesian Model Averaging (BMA) and Bayesian Hierarchical Model (BHM) are two promising methods to solve the issue of model uncertainty. The rate-of-return estimates by BHM are preferable because BHM imposes fewer restrictions on lag structures and offers more reasonable lag shapes. By BHM, the internal rates of return (IRR) of Virginia's public expenditures on agricultural RandE are 26% and 42%, respectively. Nineteen percent of Virginia's agricultural productivity growth during 1949-2016 results from its RandE investments, and the contribution of research to that growth is about twice of that of extension. One extra million dollar expenditure on research in 1992 would have brought a benefit of $4.5 million, and the same expenditure in 1983 would have brought $5.4 million in additional benefits. If the extra expenditure is spent on extension, it would have brought a benefit of $6.1 million and $6.3 million if the expenditure occurs in 1992 and 1983, respectively. Besides the modeling strategy, this study is distinguished from previous studies in that distributions of rates of return instead of only point estimates are obtained, which is missing in most studies. / Doctor of Philosophy / In a world of imbalance, food production and consumption exhibit great diversity among regions and countries. While farmers of developed economies benefit from up-todate agricultural technology and produce more than they consume, households in the developing world are still facing food insecurity. This dissertation is composed of two manuscripts. Chapter 1 is about food consumption in developing countries. It analyzes household food demand behavior in the two West Africa countries Niger and Nigeria with a focus on staple foods. Food demand behavior differs for rural and urban households and households of different income. Therefore, when evaluating the effects of policies and other impacts, policymakers and researchers should treat households with different attributes separately. Chapter 2 is on how to improve agricultural production within the context of a developed economy: it evaluates the returns to public expenditures on agricultural research and extension (R&E) in Virginia. Previous studies choose statistical models arbitrarily, and this study attempts to address this issue. It finds that Virginia’s investments in agricultural R&E contribute to nineteen percent of the productivity growth in 1949-2016, and the contribution of research is about twice of that of extension.

The Kenyan state is currently under pressure from two sides: First, numerous non-state armed groups have taken over the provision of security in areas where the state is practically absent. Second, drug-trafficking organizations are gaining ground as the country is increasingly being used as a major transit hub for narcotics. This article investigates the relationship between drug trafficking and informal security provision in Kenya and draws analogies from comparable experiences in Latin America and West Africa. Field research in Kenya has demonstrated that profit-oriented, informal security actors in Mombasa work for drug lords, while their counterparts in Nairobi are more likely to be hired by politicians. Moreover, faith-based vigilante groups in both cities appear to be less susceptible to external manipulation by drug traffickers. The article concludes by considering the potential consequences of an expansion of the drug trade in Kenya. / © 2014 GIGA. Reproduced in accordance with the publisher's self-archiving policy. Africa Spectrum is an Open Access publication. It may be read, copied and distributed free of charge according to the conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution-No Derivative Works 3.0 License.

The Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus is native to Africa and middle East, and is an important source of nutrition for many in sub-Saharan Africa. Understanding the genetic diversity within and differentiation among wild populations can help identify O. niloticus populations that are imperiled and require directed management, especially because of increasing threats to the species' long-term persistence in the wild, including habitat destruction, overfishing, climate change, and hybridization with farmed populations. Knowledge of the genetic variation among wild populations also can contribute to foundation and selection of genetically diverse populations for aquaculture. I assessed the genetic variation among tilapia populations using fin-clips collected between December 2014 and July 2017 from 14 farmed sources, mostly originating from cage farms on the Volta Lake, and 13 wild sources from nine river basins in Ghana. I also conducted a laboratory growth experiment in Ghana with two wild populations to evaluate the tolerance of different genotypes to high temperatures, to inform their development for aquaculture in West Africa. I found that pure O. niloticus populations persist in the wild but some have been extensively introgressed with the closely related species, O. aureus, which has not previously been documented in Ghana. Additionally, some wild populations appear to have recently declined significantly in numbers, likely due to overfishing and habitat modification, the latter primarily as a result of illegal alluvial mining ongoing in Ghana. Analysis of the farmed populations revealed that at least two farms were growing the unapproved genetically improved farmed tilapia (GIFT) and related strains, and that escaped individuals are admixed into some wild populations. The results of my laboratory experiment showed that O. niloticus populations occurring in northern Ghana already may be adapted to warmer temperatures and could be developed and used purposefully in aquaculture, taking advantage of their adaptation. To protect remnant pure O. niloticus populations in the wild, timely conservation decisions should be made and implemented. Protecting wild O. niloticus populations also would ensure that pure germplasms are available to develop aquaculture stocks from native populations. / Ph. D. / The Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus is an important food source for many people in Africa. However, many wild populations may be at risk of population decline and extinction because of increasing human activities such as overfishing and farming of non-native strains. Understanding the genetic differences among wild populations and comparing them with farmed strains can inform protection of wild populations and also help develop aquaculture strains using native populations as genetic resources. I assessed the genetic differences among tilapia populations using fin-clips I collected between December 2014 and July 2017 from 14 farmed sources, mostly originating from cage farms on the Volta Lake, and 13 wild sources from nine river basins in Ghana. I also conducted a laboratory study with two wild populations to test their tolerance to high water temperature. My research showed that pure O. niloticus populations still occur in Ghanaian rivers, but some have reproduced widely with a similar species, O. aureus, which is not known to occur in Ghanaian rivers. I also found that some wild populations may have reduced population sizes because of overfishing or because their environments have been impacted by illegal mining occurring in almost all Ghanaian rivers. My results indicated that at least two farms were growing the genetically improved farmed tilapia (GIFT) and related varieties, some of which have escaped the farms and mixed with wild populations. The results of my laboratory experiment showed that O. niloticus populations occurring in northern Ghana may be adapted to warmer water temperatures and could be selectively bred and used in aquaculture. The information generated from my research should help in making timely conservation decisions, which should help protect the remnant pure O. niloticus populations in the wild and contribute to developing aquaculture responsibly.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The concept of mentoring has received substantial attention in the literature, as is evidenced by the quantity and quality of empirical and theoretical scholarship on the topic. In the post-modern era, we have seen a proliferation of evangelical schools engaging in the effort to better equip our present and future leaders. No longer can it be assumed that incoming seminary students have a working knowledge of the basics of the Christian faith. The aim of this study is an attempt to explore the impact of mentoring in theological seminaries. It is true that mentoring programmes are increasingly popular interventions strategies in many organizations; and although successful mentoring relationships can promote a range of positive developmental outcomes, relationships that fail can lead to decrements in a person’s functioning and self-esteem. This study explores the various mentoring programmes in three ECWA (Evangelical Church Winning All formerly Evangelical Church of West Africa. See details of name change in footnote 3, Chapter 1) seminaries and evaluates its impact on both the graduates and the mentors. The study further explored if mentoring can contribute to the holistic development of seminary students, and what avenues there are for mentoring involvement in the seminaries under consideration. Graduates between 2011 and 2005 of the 3 seminaries who went through mentoring programmes while at the seminary, current faculty mentors and the heads of the 3 institutions were included as respondents. A qualitative approached was used, applying focus groups and individual interviews to obtain data. The empirical findings of this research reveal that mentoring plays an important role in the holistic development of seminary students especially in three areas, namely spiritual formation, character and ministry formation. It has shown that integration of mentoring in theological seminaries is both biblically necessary and practically possible. Despite the fact that respondents identified mentoring as helping them in their holistic development as graduates, they still believed that mentoring is not effective in the seminaries. The heads of institutions and the faculty respondents also agreed that even though mentoring is taken place in the 3 seminaries, it lacks several aspects of effectiveness, i.e. lack of documentation on mentoring, lack of supervision of mentors, lack of proper mentoring administration, lack of standardized procedures with regards to mentoring, lack of training for mentors, etc. The study makes several recommendations as to improve the effectiveness of mentoring, with special focus on the youth. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die konsep van mentorskap het die afgelope tyd substansiële aandag in die literatuur geniet, soos gesien kan word in die hoeveelheid en kwaliteit empiriese en teoretiese studies oor die onderwerp. Ons sien in die post-moderne era `n vermeerdering in die evangeliese skole wat moeite doen om hulle huidige en toekomstige leiers beter toe te rus. Dit kan nie meer aangeneem word dat inkomende seminarium studente kennis het van selfs die basiese beginsels van die Christelike geloof nie. Die doel van hierdie studie is `n poging om die impak van mentorskap in teologiese seminariums te ondersoek. Dit is so dat mentorskap programme toenemend gewilde intervensie strategieë is in baie organisasies, en alhoewel suksesvolle mentorskap verhoudings `n reeks positiewe ontwikkelingsuitkomste kan bevorder, net so kan verhoudings wat faal, lei tot geweldige skade in `n persoon se funksionering en selfbeeld. Hierdie studie ondersoek die verskeie mentorskap programme in drie ECWA (Evangelical Church Winning All formerly Evangelical Church of West Africa. Sien die gedetaileerde verduideliking in voetnota 3, Hoofstuk 1) seminariums en evalueer die impak daarvan op beide die afgestudeerdes en die mentors. Die studie ondersoek verder of mentorskap kan bydra tot die holistiese onwikkeling van seminarium studente, en watter moontlikhede daar is vir mentorskap betrokkenheid in die betrokke seminariums. Afgestudeerde studente (tussen 2011 en 2005) van die drie seminariums wat deel was van mentorskap programme tydens hulle studies, huidige fakulteitsmentors en die hoofde van die drie instellings is ingesluit as respondente. `n Kwalitatiewe benadering is gevolg, met fokusgroepe en individuele onderhoude as metodes vir data-insameling. Die empiriese bevindings van hierdie navorsing toon dat mentorskap `n belangrike rol speel in die holistiese ontwikkeling van seminarium studente in veral drie areas, naamlik spirituele formasie, karakterontwikkeling en die ontwikkeling van vaardighede vir die bediening. Dit toon verder dat `n integrasie van mentorskap in teologiese seminariums volgens bybelse terme nodig is en ook prakties moontlik is. Ten spyte van die feit dat respondente mentorskap identifiseer as bydraend tot hulle holistiese ontwikkeling as afgestudeerdes, is daar die persepsie dat mentorskap nie effektief in die seminariums toegepas word nie. Die hoofde van die instellings asook die fakulteitsrespondente is dit ook eens dat alhoewel mentorskap plaasvind in die drie seminariums, dit leemtes toon in onder andere die tekort aan dokumentasie oor mentorskap, die tekort aan supervisie vir mentors, tekort aan behoorlike mentorskap administrasie, die tekort aan gestandardiseerde prosedures met betrekking tot mentorskap, die tekort aan behoorlike opleiding vir mentors, ens. Die studie maak verskeie aanbevelings om die effektiwiteit van mentorskap te verbeter, met spesifieke verwysing na die jeug.

Cette thèse s’inscrit dans la perspective d’un diagnostic stratégique du secteur de Transport Routier Interurbain des Voyageurs (TRIV) en Afrique de l’Ouest (Cas du Burkina Faso, du Mali et du Niger).L’organisation du transport et le fonctionnement des entreprises dudit secteur à l’aune de la mondialisation et de la modernisation laissent encore à désirer. Nombreuses sont les difficultés recensées à divers niveaux du système entravant ainsi le développement économique du secteur.Pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest, de nombreuses études et recherches ont déjà été réalisées sur le système de transport urbain et sur le transport des marchandises avec diagnostics et préconisations . Cependant le sous-secteur du TRIV a aussi son importance et il convient de le prendre en compte dans le schéma d’intégration sous régionale en Afrique. Notre recherche démontre que l’analyse du TRIV ne doit pas se limiter à ses aspects réglementaires et institutionnels et qu’elle doit intégrer les entreprises comme éléments clés du développement du secteur. Celles-ci sont désormais confrontées au défi de la concurrence sur les marchés tant intérieurs que sous-régionaux du transport des voyageurs. La modernisation du secteur et son développement ultérieur impliquent des adaptations des entreprises artisanales, des changements dans l’organisation et les conditions de fonctionnement de cette activité.Notre démarche aborde dans un premier temps, la configuration actuelle du marché de TRIV. L’analyse met en évidence l’indispensable complémentarité de l’offre des sociétés de transport et des artisans transporteurs. A partir de ce constat, des modèles de stratégies potentielles sont élaborés pour les entreprises contraintes à la compétitivité.Cependant, compte tenu de l’organisation du marché de TRIV au Niger, de la multiplicité des entreprises et de l’absence des données, nous avons défini des groupes contrastés d’entreprises, le regroupement se faisant à partir des caractéristiques techniques, organisationnelles (types de véhicules utilisés, organisation des services) et géographique (lignes desservies).Cette approche nous a permis de mettre en lumière les spécificités des maillons du marché mais aussi les grands déséquilibres existants en matière de desserte dans les principales zones. A travers les modèles de stratégies développés, notre ambition est de donner un cadre de référence aux entreprises à partir duquel et compte tenu de leurs ressources internes, elles organiseront leur stratégie. Ces entreprises devraient pouvoir y parvenir dans le cadre d’une politique publique des transports prenant en compte les attentes des principaux acteurs. / This thesis is registered in the perspective of a strategic diagnosis of the Transport sector Intercity Road of travellers (TRIV) in West Africa (case of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger). The transport organization and the functioning of enterprises of the sector to the yardstick of globalization and the modernization is still inadequate. There are many difficulties identified at various levels of the system thus hindering the economic development of the sector. For West Africa, many studies and research have already been carried out on the system of urban transport and on the transport of goods with diagnostics and recommendations . However, the sub-sector of TRIV also has its importance and it should be taken into account in the schema of sub-regional integration in Africa. Our research shows that the analysis of TRIV must not be limited to its aspects regulatory and institutional and that it must integrate the companies as the key elements of the development of the sector. These are now faced the challenge of competition on the markets both the domestic that sub-regional passenger transport. The modernization of the sector and its subsequent development involve adjustments of craft businesses, changes in the organization and the conditions of operation of this activity. Our approach addresses in the first time, the current configuration of the market of TRIV The analysis highlights the indispensable complementarity of the offer of transport companies and craftsmen carriers. From this finding, models of potential strategies are developed for firms forced to competitiveness. However, in light of the organization of the market of TRIV in Niger, of the multiplicity of enterprises and absence of data, we defined groups contrasting of enterprises, the consolidation at from the technical characteristics, organizational (types of vehicles used, organization of the services) and the geographical (lines served). This approach has allowed us to highlight the specificities of links in the market but also the major imbalances existing in the field of service in the main areas. Through the models of strategies developed, our ambition is to give a reference framework for companies from which and taking into account their internal resources, they organize their strategy. These companies should be able to achieve in the framework of a public policy of transport taking into account the expectations of key actors.

Notre patrimoine génétique dévoile, de plus en plus, les passerelles démogénétiques d’une susceptibilité plus accrue de certains individus à des maladies infectieuses complexes. En vue d’une caractérisation de la variabilité génétique des populations ouest-africaines, nous avons analysé 659 chromosomes X au locus dys44 qui comprend, 35 SNPs et un microsatellite distribués sur 2853 pb en amont et 5034 pb en aval de l’exon 44 du gène de la dystrophine en Xp21.3. Les génotypes obtenus, par ASO dynamique et électrophorèse sur gel d’acrylamide, ont servi à la détermination des haplotypes. Des paramètres comme la diversité haplotypique (G) et l'indice de fixation (Fst) ont été calculés. Des analyses en composantes principales ainsi que multidimensionnelles ont été réalisées. Sur 68 haplotypes détectés, 26 sont nouveaux, et cette région, avec une diversité haplotypique moyenne (Gmoy) de 0,91 ± 0,03, se révèle beaucoup plus hétérogène que le reste du continent (Gmoy = 0,85 ± 0,04). Toutefois, malgré l’existence de disparités sous régionales dans la distribution des variants du marqueur dys44, l’AMOVA montre d’une manière générale, une faible érosion de l’éloignement génétique entre les populations subsahariennes (Fst = 1,5% ; p<10-5). Certains variants tel que l’haplotype eurasien B006 paraissent indiquer des flux transsahariens de gènes entre les populations nord-africaines et celles subsahariennes, comme l’exemplifie le pool génétique de l’une des populations ubiquitaires de la famille linguistique Nigéro-congolaise : Les Fulani. Nos résultats vont aussi dans le sens d’un héritage phylétique commun entre les Biaka, les Afro-américains et les populations de la sous-famille de langues Volta-Congo. / The unravelling of our genetic heritage has revealed a demogenetic segueway leading to an increased susceptibility of certain individuals to complex infectious diseases. In order to characterize genetic variability among the West African populations, we analyzed 659 X chromosomes at the dys44 locus which comprises 35 SNPs and a microsatellite spanning a region 2853 bp upstream and 5034 bp downstream of exon 44 of the dystrophine gene in Xp21.3. The resulting genotypes, obtained by dynamic allele specific oligonucleotide hybridization and acrylamide gel electrophoresis, were used for haplotype construction. Gene diversity parameters such as the haplotypic diversity (G) and fixation indexes (Fst) were estimated. Multidimensional analysis of the data, including principal component analysis was also performed. Of the 68 distinct haplotypes detected in our data set, 26 were novel. The mean haplotypic diversity (Gmoy) was 0.91 ± 0.03 for this West African region which was shown to be more heterogeneous than the rest of the continent (Gmoy = 0.85 ± 0.04). However, despite certain sub-regional differences in the distribution of dys44 variants, the analysis of molecular variance showed an overall decline in the genetic distance between Sub-Saharan populations (Fst = 1.5% ; p<10-5). Certain variants, such as the Eurasian-specific haplotype B006, appear to suggest a Trans-Saharan gene flux between North African and Sub-Saharan populations as exemplified by the observed genetic pool of one of the ubiquitous populations of the Nigerian-Congolese linguistic family: The Fulani. Our results are also in agreement with a phyletic heritage between the Biaka, the Afro-Americans and the populations of the Volta-Congo language subfamilies.

Thèse numérisée par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

Le Sommet mondial sur la société de l’information (Genève 2003 et Tunis 2005) a préconisé la solidarité numérique comme solution pour mettre fin aux inégalités d’accès aux technologies de l’information et de la communication (TIC) entre les pays industrialisés et les pays en développement. A l’issue de ce Sommet, deux mécanismes institutionnels, à savoir le Fonds mondial et l’Agence mondiale de solidarité numérique, ont vu le jour. Ces institutions s’étaient fixées pour objectif de contribuer à la réduction de la fracture numérique en promouvant l’accès généralisé aux TIC à travers des programmes et des projets internationaux ciblant en particulier les pays africains. Cette thèse analyse les effets des politiques et actions internationales menées dans le domaine de la solidarité numérique. Elle étudie notamment les conditions de la mobilisation des ressources humaines, financières et technologiques nécessaires pour que la solidarité numérique institutionnelle soit un instrument au service de la participation du continent africain dans la société de l’information. Il s’agit également de montrer que cette nouvelle approche de coopération Nord-Sud dans le domaine des TIC n’est pas véritablement en rupture avec les schémas traditionnels d’assistanat et d’aide publique au développement. La thèse révèle également l’existence des écarts et des décalages entre les objectifs annoncés par les politiques internationales de solidarité numérique et les actions qui ont concrètement été réalisées sur le terrain, aux niveaux national et local, dans les pays d’Afrique de l’Ouest. / The World Summit on the Information Society (Geneva 2003 and Tunis 2005) advocated the digital solidarity as a solution to end inequalities in access to information and communication technologies (ICT) between developed and developing countries. Following the Summit, two institutional mechanisms (the World Digital Solidarity Fund and the World Digital Solidarity Agency) have been created. These institutions were designed to contribute to reducing the digital divide by promoting widespread access to ICT through international programs specifically targeting African countries. This thesis analyzes the effects of international digital solidarity policies and programs in Africa. It examines specifically the conditions for mobilizing human, financial and technological resources for the participation of African countries in the information society. It also argues that this new approach of North-South cooperation in the field of ICT does not really break with traditional technical assistance projects. The thesis also reveals gaps between the objectives announced by international policies and the actions that have been carried out in West Africa countries in bridging the digital divide.