In the context of rapid urbanization, globalization, market liberalization, and growing flexibility of labor in the post-Fordist era, urban environments have seen economic opportunities and employment in the formal sector become increasingly less available to the vast majority of urban dwellers in both high-income and low-income countries. The intersectional forces of globalization, and neoliberalization have contributed to the ever-growing role of informal economic opportunities in providing the necessary income to fulfill household needs for individuals throughout the world and have also influenced social, cultural, and spatial organization of informal sector workers. Using a case study and ethnographic information from several regions of southern Ghana, this research examines the way in which informal sector food vendors in Ghana are imbedded in larger global food networks as well as how globalization is experienced by vendors at the ground level.

Le but de cette thèse est de développer une méthodologie permettant d’évaluer les performances et la durabilité des systèmes de production d’électricité par gazéification de biomasse en milieu rural en pays en développement. Cette thèse propose un cadre méthodologique général qui décrit les démarches visant: (1) à définir les critères d’évaluation de performance, (2) à choisir les méthodes ou modèles d’évaluation des critères et (3) à choisir la méthode permettant d’analyser la fiabilité de l’évaluation. A partir de ce cadre méthodologique, une méthodologie d’évaluation des systèmes de production d’électricité par gazéification de biomasse en Afrique de l’Ouest est développée. Quatorze (14) critères d’évaluation sont définis en prenant en compte les quatre dimensions de la durabilité (technique, économique, environnemental, social). Des modèles sont élaborés pour l’estimation de chacun des critères considérés. Le modèle d’évaluation global est appliqué sur un projet de système de production d’électricité par gazéification de biomasse au Burkina Faso. Douze (12) configurations de système sont évaluées pour satisfaire les mêmes profils de charge. Les résultats de simulation ont permis d’identifier d’un point de vue de l’opérateur et des consommateurs, la configuration qui permet de valoriser au mieux la ressource en biomasse locale disponible avec un coût d’électricité abordable et qui offre à l’opérateur une flexibilité relative pour s’adapter aux évolutions de la demande en énergie électrique / This thesis aims to develop a performance assessment methodology of power generation systems based on biomass gasification in a rural area case in developing countries. The general methodological framework of this thesis is described in the approaches as follow: (i) defining performance assessment criteria, (ii) selecting methods or models for assessing the criteria, and (iii) choosing the method of analyzing the reliability of the assessment. Based on this methodological framework, a methodology for the assessment of electricity generation by biomass gasification systems in West Africa is developed. Fourteen assessment criteria are defined by taking in account technical, economic, environmental and social aspects. Models are developed for the calculation of each criterion considered. The models are then applied to carry out a performance assessment of the electricity generation by biomass gasification project in Burkina Faso. Twelve (12) system configurations are studied to satisfy the same load profiles. Simulation results allowed identifying from the point of view of the operator and the consumers the configurations which give better valorization of biomass available with an affordable electricity cost and which offer to operator a relative flexibility to adapt to changes in electricity demand.

L'Union Européenne doit répondre à des défis sécuritaires majeurs, dont en particulier celui de la drogue, appréhendé dans toutes ses dimensions. Si le cannabis reste en 2018 la drogue la plus consommée sur le Vieux Continent, avec 17,2 millions d'usagers, la cocaïne arrive en seconde place avec 2,3 millions de consommateurs, soit près de 2% de la population européenne âgée de 15 à 34 ans. Alors que cette drogue est produite exclusivement en Amérique latine à partir des feuilles de coca, principalement en Bolivie, en Colombie et au Pérou, sa consommation s'est popularisée en Europe, non sans conséquences d'un point de vue sanitaire. Ainsi, les trafiquants de cocaïne ont su adapter leurs circuits d'approvisionnement dans le contexte d'un marché des drogues mondialisé et en perpétuel changement, dont ils profitent pleinement. Un marché très dynamique et flexible, et d'autant plus dangereux pour les pays se trouvant sur les routes du trafic de cocaïne. L'Afrique de l'Ouest et les Caraïbes sont deux régions particulièrement touchées par ce phénomène, au point d'être considérées comme étant des carrefours essentiels au transit de la poudre blanche. A ce titre, la translation, au moins partielle, entre les Caraïbes et l'Afrique de l'Ouest en matière de trafic de drogue révèle à quel point les réseaux sont imbriqués et aptes aussi bien à s'adapter à l'évolution de la géopolitique à l'échelle de la planète et des sous-régions, qu'à tirer profit des spécificités des États, mais aussi de leurs faiblesses. Le véritable enjeu pour l'Union européenne tient au fait que l'ampleur du trafic de cocaïne fondé désormais sur une répartition des rôles entre les Caraïbes et l'Afrique de l'Ouest constitue un vrai danger pour le Vieux Continent et pour les populations. L'intérêt pour l'Union européenne, même si ses moyens d'action et d'intervention sont limités et plus difficiles à coordonner comparés à ceux mobilisés par les États-Unis, est de déployer des stratégies pour enrayer le phénomène, en mettant en place des dispositifs qui se distinguent du tout répressif, caractéristique du modèle américain. / The EU must provide solutions to major security challenges mainly the one related to drugs viewed in all its dimensions. If in 2018, canabis remains the most used drug on the old Continent with 17,2 million users, cocaïne takes second place with 2,3 million, nearly 2% of the population aged 15-34. While this drug is produced exclusively in Latin America from coca leaves, mainly in Bolivia, Colombia and Peru, its use has become popular in Europe with health consequences. Their, cocaïne traffickers have been able to product their supply channels in the contest of a globalized and ever changing drug market that benefits them fully. A very dynamic and flexible market which is all the more dangerous for countries on the road of cocaïne trafficking. West Africa and the Caribbean are two regions particularly affected by this phenomenon to the point of being considered as essentiel crossroads for the transit of white powder. As such the translation, at least partielly, between the Caribbean and West Africa in terms of drug trafficking reveals the extent to which networks are interconnected and able to adopt to the evolution of geopolitics on a global and sub global scale regions, to take advantage if the specificities of the States, but also their weaknesses. The real challenge for the EU lies in the fact that the scale of cocaïne trafficking now based on a distribution of roles between the Caribbean and West Africa is a real danger for the old Continent and populations. The interest of the EU, even if its means of action end intervention are limited and more difficult to coordinate compared to those mobilized by the United States, is to deploy strategies to curb the phenomenon, by putting in place devices that stand out from the American model of repression.

La peste des petits ruminants est une maladie infectieuse animale très contagieuse. Largement répandue en Afrique, au Moyen Orient, et en Asie, elle fait des ravages dans les élevages ovins et caprins. Les petits ruminants représentent une ressource nutritionnelle et économique essentielle dans les pays en développement, notamment pour les communautés rurales les plus pauvres. En Afrique sub-saharienne, l'impact de la maladie est d'autant plus élevé que les mouvements des animaux sont compliqués à contrôler (transhumance, commerce illégal, zones de conflits, etc.) et les contrôles sanitaires difficiles à organiser. Une coalition internationale a décidé de prendre en main le contrôle de cette maladie ravageuse en élaborant avec l'OIE et la FAO une stratégie mondiale de contrôle progressif et d'éradication de la maladie.La stratégie est basée sur la vaccination de masse mais les protocoles de vaccination ont principalement été élaborés sur des bases empiriques. Après une campagne de vaccination, la dynamique démographique entraînant le renouvellement du cheptel, la proportion d'individus immunisés au sein de la population (taux d'immunité) est amenée à diminuer au cours du temps (entrées d'animaux non vaccinés, e.g. les naissances, et sorties d'animaux vaccinés, e.g. les ventes). La décroissance du taux d'immunité permet d'évaluer l'efficacité de la vaccination à moyen terme. Si le taux d'immunité est assez élevé, le virus n'a plus d'hôte pour se propager. Le renouvellement du cheptel est délicat à estimer et varie d'un système d'élevage à l'autre. Ce manuscrit présente une méthode d'optimisation des protocoles de vaccination pour obtenir la meilleure couverture immunitaire possible.Un modèle dynamique de prédiction du taux d'immunité dans des élevages de petits ruminants d'Afrique sub-saharienne au cours d'un programme de vaccination pluri-annuel a été développé en utilisant la théorie des modèles démographiques matriciels. Cet outil a été utilisé pour évaluer différents protocoles proposés pour les zones sahéliennes arides / semi-arides et les zones sub-humides / humides. Les paramètres des modèles ont été estimés à partir des données disponibles et d'une revue exhaustive de la littérature.Des indicateurs synthétiques de l'efficacité des protocoles ont été calculés (persistance du niveau protecteur, taux d'immunité moyen, etc.), puis comparés.L'étude a confirmé la pertinence des protocoles proposés par l'OIE et la FAO, apportant des précisions pour les divers scénarios. Les couvertures vaccinales atteintes doivent être très élevées (>80%) pour permettre la protection d'un troupeau pendant toute la durée du programme. En zone sahélienne, les troupeaux doivent être vaccinés au plus tôt après la saison des pluies pour optimiser la portée de la vaccination. L'étude révèle aussi que le pic d'exploitation des mâles, dû à la Tabaski, et la situation épidémiologique initiale du troupeau influent peu sur la dynamique du taux d'immunité.L'outil développé au cours de cette thèse peut être utilisé pour toute maladie infectieuse pour laquelle on dispose d'un vaccin efficace à long terme et toute population domestique dont on connaît la dynamique. Il pourrait cependant être amélioré par l'intégration de la dynamique de la maladie et de la répartition spatiale des élevages sous forme de méta-communauté. / Peste des petits ruminants is a highly contagious animal disease. Widespread in Africa, the Middle East and Asia, it has a devastating effect on small ruminants. Small ruminants are essential to sustainable livelihood in developping countries, especially in rural communities. In western Africa, the disease incidence is higher because of the difficulty to control animals movements (transhumance, illegal trade, conflicted areas, etc.) and to settle adapted sanitary actions.A global strategy for the progressive control and the eradication of the disease has been developed by the OIE and FAO. It is based on mass vaccination, with vaccination protocols defined on empirical basis.After a vaccination campaign, the population dynamics is responsible for herd renewal, the proportion of protected individuals (post-vaccinal immunity rate) in the population is decreasing over time (entries of non-vaccinated animals and exits of vaccinated ones). The immunity rate decrease allows to assess to the efficiency of employed vaccination strategies in term of immunity coverage. From a given threshold, the immunity rate can stop the viral transmission. The population renewal has to be estimated carrefully because it varies from one farming system to another. The work described in this manuscript provides an optimization tool of vaccination strategy, supporting decision markers in the formulation of vaccination protocole achiving the best possible immunization coverage in a given socio-economical context.Using the demographic matrix model theory, we developed a seasonal model predicting the immunity rate dynamics in traditional small ruminants livestock of Western African during a vaccination program. We used this model to evaluate different vaccination protocols proposed for Sahelian arid and semi-arid areas, and Soudano-guinean sub-humid and humid areas. Model parameters were estimated from the available data and an exhaustive review of literature.Synthesising indicators of the protocoles efficiency were computed (length of protective immunity, average immunity rate, etc.) and compared.The work described in the manuscript broadly confirmed the protocols proposed by the OIE and FAO. Additionally, this work provides details for the various scenarios. Very high vaccination coverage (>80%) should be reached to protect the population during the whole program. In the Sahelian zone, herds should be vaccinated at the earliest possible from September to optimize the scope of vaccination. We also show that the males offtake increase due to Tabaski and the initial epidemiological situation poorly influences the immunity rate dynamics.Our tool is generic. I can be applied to any infectious disease which has a vaccine providing a lifelong immunity and for which the population dynamics is known. Nevertheless, it could be improved by implementing spatial analysis and disease dynamics.

Good governance and development have been two dominating concepts in the debate by development oriented scholars. However, are the two concepts necessarily compatible with each other? This research will analyze and discuss good governance and its link to development in a critical study of the liberal inspired governance. It will take its basis in modernization theory and use Adrian Leftwich´s  five elements as criteria for analyzing  the developments in four countries in sub-Sahara Africa more specifically Togo, Ghana, Nigeria and Côte d'Ivoire, These five elements will be applied to the developments in each country which all are scrutinized on the basis of data on the characteristic of good governance from UNDP, the World Bank and Freedom House . Not only will x good governance as such be analyzed but in particular the link between good governance and governance. Thus, the definitions of governance will be an important at question to deal with. In all the four countries much still remains for good governance to be implemented in a way that it contributes to development. Ghana does however show some positive signs.

The move towards addressing two pertinent energy challenges that is access to electricity and climate change has seen the transition towards sustainable forms of energy including Ocean Based Renewable Energy (OBRE). However, much work remains to be done in understanding the critical success factors that could enable such potential transition, especially in the area of OBRE electricity generation. This research addresses this concern by drawing on transition theory and frameworks to critically evaluate the prospects towards OBRE development in Nigeria. The rationale for the study stems from issues around the inadequate supply of electricity, which has become a profound concern and, where its absence is mostly observed in rural and remote areas including coastal communities. Based on an interpretative philosophical stance, the study adopted a qualitative approach for conducting the research. In-depth semi-structured interviews were used to collect data from twenty-seven research participants. The research findings revealed that there is scope for transitioning towards OBRE electricity generation. However, this potential may be hindered by key features of the incumbent socio-technical regime: inconsistency of statements in formal policy documents; unclear institutional arrangements to foster renewable energy development; and lack of regulatory and market support mechanisms, which keep renewable energy development at the margins. Nevertheless, the study found certain perceived critical success factors that when considered could aid in facilitating OBRE development in Nigeria. These included, in particular, meaningful stakeholder engagement that aimed to harmonise the diverse interests of key actors’ and the role of adequate political governance to facilitate OBRE design and implementation. The research concludes by developing a conceptual intervention model called the OBRE Transition Model. This model argues that through more meaningful engagement with pertinent stakeholders’ and stronger political commitment, the prospect for a transition towards OBRE development in Nigeria could be accomplished. This thesis is the first of its kind to study the prospects for a transition towards OBRE innovation in West Africa. Additionally, the model that has been developed is now going to be corroborated in an OBRE project in Nigeria, thus, forming the evidence on the model’s potential applicability for future study.

The thesis contributes to the policy transfer literature through the examination of narratives presented by policy actors engaged in policy transfer. The actors’ policy narratives are analysed through the application of the Narrative Policy Framework (NPF). With the use of the NPF, the research investigates the portrayal of narrative elements, including, setting, character, plot, and moral, by the transfer actors, in depicting their perception of the transfer process and object, and of the other actors involved in the policy transfer. The investigation is aimed at having a better understanding of factors that facilitate the occurrence of policy transfer i.e. transfer mechanisms, such as, conditionality, obligation, and persuasion, and how they manifest and drive the transfer process. To examine how policy narratives may inform the manifestation of transfer mechanisms, the research studies two cases of policy transfer involving international governmental organisations (IGOs) as transfer agents. These are i) the transfer of renewable energy policy by the European Union to the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and ii) the transfer of disaster risk reduction (DRR) policy by the United Nations International Strategy for DRR (UNISDR) to ECOWAS. The thesis argues that the mechanisms of conditionality and persuasion were involved in the transfer of renewable energy policy, while the mechanism of obligation can be observed in the transfer of DRR policy. It further argues that the portrayals of the narrative setting, character, plot and moral, in the policy narratives of the transfer agents and recipient, shaped the manifestation of these transfer mechanisms. The application of the NPF to the two case studies enabled the identification and association of different policy narrative elements that will likely characterise specific transfer mechanisms. In addition, the study highlights the opportunity of broadening policy transfer research beyond a limited geographical reach, through covering two instances of policy transfer to a region in sub-Sahara Africa. It also broadens the group of actors that are often studied in the literature by considering policy transfers initiated and led by IGOs.

Um dos aspectos mais importantes da nova realidade internacional é a tendência à formação de blocos regionais. A criação dos blocos ao redor do mundo representa uma estratégia de promoção do desenvolvimento para os países da periferia e, sobretudo, para os Estados africanos que são caracterizados por uma história peculiar de marginalização, países com pobreza e miséria dramáticas, ciclos de instabilidades política e militar, sequelas de séculos de explorações promovida por diversas potências. Como forma de resolver parte dos problemas que afetam o continente, os dirigentes africanos acreditam na integração econômica e política como uma das alternativas. Tratando-se dos países do oeste africano, a integração possibilita uma coordenação conjunta na solução dos problemas internos da região e nos desafios da globalização. O objetivo desta tese é de analisar a inserção da Guiné-Bissau na UEMOA. Neste sentido, o trabalho se propõe responder duas perguntas: em que medida a UEMOA pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento econômico e social guineense e quais são as vantagens e as desvantagens da Guiné-Bissau na UEMOA. Ele parte da hipótese de que a referida união é bastante útil para o país lusófono na medida em que oferece um enorme suporte na sua política monetária e fiscal, sem falar na abertura de novos mercados, embora o ciclo da instabilidade política tenha se constituído num dos principais obstáculos para o desempenho guineense no bloco. Ressalta-se que o presente trabalho foi construído com base nas consultas de diversas obras bibliográficas, e também, durante a construção desta tese, viajamos para o referido país que constitui objeto do nosso estudo, onde obtivemos alguns dados primários através do contato que tivemos com diversos dirigentes do país ligado ao tema. Entretanto, conclui-se que a inserção da Guiné na UEMOA aconteceu de forma precipitada sem que houvesse estudos aprofundados. Embora o país, por um lado, tenha alcançado um dos objetivos que é de estabilizar os preços ou controlar a inflação, assim como encontrou, na união, uma importante fonte de financiamento, o BOAD (Banque Ouést Africaine de Dévelopment), para desenvolver, reabilitar e modernizar as suas infraestruturas. Por outro lado, o desempenho guineense naquele bloco tem sido afetado pelo ciclo de instabilidades que tem dificultado a elaboração de uma estratégia que permitiria a obtenção de ganhos, seja por via do comércio internacional ou pela captação do investimento estrangeiro; com isso, o país se tornou dependente dos seus parceiros do bloco. / One of the most important aspects of the new international reality is the tendency to form regional blocks. The creation of blocks around the world is a development promotion strategy for the periphery countries and, especially to the African states, which are characterized by a peculiar history of marginalization, countries with dramatic poverty and misery, cycles of political and military instabilities, consequences of centuries of explorations promoted by many colonial powers. As a way to solve part of problems that affect the continent, African leaders, believe in economic and political integration as one of the alternatives. Concerning West African countries, the integration enables to joint coordination in solving the internal problems of the region and the challenges of globalization. This thesis aims to analyze the inclusion of Guinea-Bissau in the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU). Thus, the work aims to answer two questions: to what extent WAEMU can contribute to economic and social development of Guinea-Bissau, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of Guinea-Bissau in the WAEMU. It starts from the assumption that such union is very useful for the Portuguese-speaking country, once it offers a huge support in its monetary and fiscal policy, not to mention the opening of new markets, although the cycle of political instability has been one of the main obstacles to Guinea-Bissau performance in the block. It is noteworthy that this work was done in the basis of research in various literature works, and during the construction of this thesis, we traveled to the country, which is the object of our study, where we obtained some primary data through the contact we had with several leaders of the country related to the subject. However, it is concluded that the inclusion of Guinea - Bissau in WAEMU happened rashly without in depth studies. Although the country on one hand, has achieved one of its goals to stabilize prices and control inflation, as found in union an important source of funding, the BOAD (Banque Ouest Africaine de Development) to develop, rehabilitate and modernize its infrastructure. On the other hand, the performance of Guinea-Bissau in the block has been affected by the instabilities cycle that has hampered the development of a strategy that would allow the development gains, either through international trade or through the capture of foreign investment; with this, the country became dependent on its partners in the block.

L’approbation par le parlement du budget présenté par le gouvernement est un moment essentiel de la vie financière des États. Au regard de son importance, il peut être utile d’apprécier la portée réelle de la fonction exercée par le parlement à cette occasion. Dans les États de l’Afrique occidentale francophone, cette appréciation conduit au constat d’une compétence parlementaire limitée. Elle est limitée aussi bien par l’encadrement de son exercice que par la latitude dont dispose l’exécutif de s’écarter de cette autorisation en cours de gestion. Au-delà de ce caractère limité, il est possible d’observer que cette compétence parlementaire est également en mutation. Cette mutation tend à en changer profondément la nature et, par voie de conséquence, à modifier sensiblement le rôle du parlement dans le processus budgétaire. D’une part, ce rôle passe de la décision à la délibération lors du vote du projet de loi de finances. D’autre part, il se traduit par un contrôle plus rigoureux de l’exécution budgétaire. / The approval by the parliament of the budget submitted by the government is a key moment in the financial life of a state. Given its importance, it may be useful to assess the true scope of the function performed by the parliament on this occasion. In the states of French-speaking West Africa, this assessment leads to the conclusion of a limited parliamentary competence. It is limited both by the management of its exercise and by the government’s flexibility to deviate from this authorization during its implementation. Beyond its limited nature, it is possible to notice that parliamentary competence is also undergoing changes. The changes tend to modify its nature deeply and, consequently, to modify the role of the parliament in the budgetary process significantly. On the one hand, this role moves from the decision to deliberation during the vote of the finance bill. On the other hand, it results in a more rigorous monitoring of budget execution.

The climate of West Africa is characterised by a monsoonal system that brings rainfall onto the subcontinent during an annual rainy season. From the late 60's to the mid-90's, rainfall levels significantly below average were observed, which brought severe socio-economic implications. The causes of the uncharacteristically long drought period, and indeed the mechanisms underpinning West African climate were poorly understood at the time, but have since attracted growing attention from the scientific community. Amongst the factors identified as critical is the interaction between the Earth surface and the atmosphere. To investigate these interactions over West Africa we have adopted an approach based upon regional climate modelling, an internationally recognised discipline enabling the representation of past and future climates, and the study of specific meteorological mechanisms. Using the regional climate model MAR, we have carried out simulations of the West African climate for the years 1986, 1987, and 1988. To improve the accuracy with which the model represents the biosphere, a new dataset describing the local vegetation was incorporated and a new scheme for the representation of roots implemented. A measure of the internal variability inherent to all results produced with this, and other such models, was determined. Subsequently, the influence of soil moisture anomalies on the model behaviour was investigated. The latest version of the model was validated by comparing it to observational data for selected years. Our results have prooven the ability of the improved MAR to simulate the West African climate, its monsoon and its spatial and temporal behaviour and provide strong evidence of its suitability for further investigation of the surface-atmosphere interactions over West Africa.