No description available.

The development of conservation and management programs for an animal population relies on a knowledge of the number of individuals in an area. In order to achieve reliable estimates, precise and accurate techniques for estimating population densities are needed. This study compared the use of direct and indirect methods of estimating kudu (Trage/aphus strepsiceras), bush buck (Trage/aphus scriptus), common duiker (Sy/vicapra grimmia), and blue duiker (Philantamba manticala) densities on Shamwari Game Reserve in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. These species prefer habitats of dense forest and bush for concealment and are therefore not easily counted in open areas. Herein direct observation counts were compared to indirect sampling via pellet group counts (clearance plots, line transects, variable-width transects, and strip transects). Clearance plots were examined every 2 weeks, while all other methods were conducted seasonally, from August 2002 until August 2003. The strip transect method provided the lowest density estimates (animals per hal ranging from 0.001 for bushbuck to 0.025 for common duiker, while direct observations yielded the highest estimates, ranging from 0.804 for bush buck to 4.692 for kudu. Also, a validation of methods was performed against a known population of kudu during which the DISTANCE method yielded the most accurate results, with an estimated density of 0.261 that was within the actual density of 0.246 to 0.282. In addition, the DISTANCE method was compared to helicopter counts ofkudu and its estimates were found to be approximately 2.6 times greater than the helicopter count results. When the assessment of the methods was made, the cost, manpower and effort requirements, coefficient of variation, and performance against a known population for each method were taken into consideration. Overall, the DISTANCE method performed the best with low cost, minimal manpower and effort requirements, and low coefficient of variation. On Shamwari Game Reserve, the DISTANCE method estimated 0.300 kudu, 0.108 bushbuck, 0.387 common duiker, and 0.028 blue duiker per ha, which, when extrapolated to the total number of animals present within subtropical thicket habitat, estimated 1973 kudu, 710 bush buck, 2545 common duiker, and 184 blue duiker.

abstract: This work investigates the effects of non-random sampling on our understanding of species distributions and their niches. In its most general form, bias is systematic error that can obscure interpretation of analytical results by skewing samples away from the average condition of the system they represent. Here I use species distribution modelling (SDM), virtual species, and multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) to explore how sampling bias can alter our perception of broad patterns of biodiversity by distorting spatial predictions of habitat, a key characteristic in biogeographic studies. I use three separate case studies to explore: 1) How methods to account for sampling bias in species distribution modeling may alter estimates of species distributions and species-environment relationships, 2) How accounting for sampling bias in fossil data may change our understanding of paleo-distributions and interpretation of niche stability through time (i.e. niche conservation), and 3) How a novel use of MGWR can account for environmental sampling bias to reveal landscape patterns of local niche differences among proximal, but non-overlapping sister taxa. Broadly, my work shows that sampling bias present in commonly used federated global biodiversity observations is more than enough to degrade model performance of spatial predictions and niche characteristics. Measures commonly used to account for this bias can negate much loss, but only in certain conditions, and did not improve the ability to correctly identify explanatory variables or recreate species-environment relationships. Paleo-distributions calibrated on biased fossil records were improved with the use of a novel method to directly estimate the biased sampling distribution, which can be generalized to finer time slices for further paleontological studies. Finally, I show how a novel coupling of SDM and MGWR can illuminate local differences in niche separation that more closely match landscape genotypic variability in the two North American desert tortoise species than does their current taxonomic delineation. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Geography 2018

Submitted by Izabel Franco (izabel-franco@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-13T13:49:01Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DissCM.pdf: 4248397 bytes, checksum: ae1321cc10bbff2fd1d706132b32117b (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-13T20:34:41Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissCM.pdf: 4248397 bytes, checksum: ae1321cc10bbff2fd1d706132b32117b (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-13T20:34:54Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissCM.pdf: 4248397 bytes, checksum: ae1321cc10bbff2fd1d706132b32117b (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-13T20:35:06Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissCM.pdf: 4248397 bytes, checksum: ae1321cc10bbff2fd1d706132b32117b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-03-17 / Outra / Wildlife conservation has been standing out on the world stage as one of the major issues of our time. Several institutions are mobilizing to develop effective strategies and actions to prevent the extinction of endangered species. Among these institutions, we remark the performance of zoos in the development of scientific research and educational activities, participation in endangered species programs, and promotion of entertainment for the visitors, thus compiling its four main attributions. In that sense, the São Paulo Zoo, besides performing its traditional role, including several educational activities, also participates and integrates endangered species conservation programs, such as the Black Lion Tamarin Conservation Program (Leontopithecus chrysopygus), conducting research about biology and ecology of populations from Floresta Nacional de Capão Bonito (Capão Bonito National Forest, São Paulo State). In this context, we developed in the present work a participatory educational process for planning and implementation of a space that educates at São Paulo Zoo about the black lion tamarin conservation. The research was conducted in a qualitative approach based on a participatory framework and using the participatory-actionresearch as a critical environmental education framework, intended to produce knowledge (research scope) to develop and implement a space that educates (action scope) from the participation of 23 professionals and 65 visitors (participation scope). In that sense, the research presents a procedural nature and was developed in four stages: Moment I - participatory diagnosis of the knowledge about the black lion tamarin from conducting individual interviews with São Paulo Zoo professionals and visitors; Moment II - two focal groups with the staff of the Zoo’s Education and Diffusion Division (DED) and Technical Team (ET) to elaborate the educational space proposal; Moment III: dialogue between the Zoo’s DED, ET, Engineering Division and Administrative Board for the space that educates implementation; Moment IV: reflexive analysis of the elaboration and implementation processes from focal groups with DED and ET, and participatory creation of manuals for the space. From the data obtained in the Moment I, it was possible to establish categories related to the structures and educational actions that would be implemented in the space that educates, which emerged from the dialogic process established between the participants and the researcher. Based on these categories, during the Moment II an educational proposal was developed containing the structural and educational features of the new space, consisting of four thematic kiosks, 23 panels, two educational games and a puppets theatre play about the species. In the Moment III, we observed a stronger participation of the São Paulo Zoo Technical Team at various stages of the implementation process, from the elaboration of visual and textual communication elements, to the building processes. In addition, as a consequence of this strengthening, the participants suggested and developed, in a participatory way, two manuals about the space aimed for environmental educators. Finally, during the Moment IV we observed that the use of participatory methodologies contributed to improve and strengthen the development of the space that educates, once the participants came to be regarded as subjects who share bonds to interpret the reality, and the dialogue established is linked to collective action in order to transform the socio-environmental problem in question, namely, the conservation of the black lion tamarin. We hope that the present research will contribute to the field of environmental education research in zoos and also to black lion tamarin conservation strategies, since it highlights the fact that it is possible to perform a participatory, reflective, cooperative and liberating practice. / A conservação da fauna silvestre vem se destacando no cenário mundial como uma das maiores problemáticas da atualidade. Diversas instituições estão se mobilizando para elaborar estratégias e ações eficazes para evitar a extinção de espécies ameaçadas. Dentre essas instituições, observamos a atuação dos zoológicos no desenvolvimento de pesquisas científicas, na participação em programas de conservação de espécies ameaçadas, na elaboração de ações educativas e na promoção do lazer e entretenimento do público visitante, compilando as suas quatro principais missões. Nesse contexto, a Fundação Parque Zoológico de São Paulo (FPZSP), além de realizar uma série de ações educativas com o público visitante, também participa e integra programas de conservação de espécies ameaçadas, como o Programa Estadual de Conservação do Mico-leãopreto (Leontopithecus chrysopygus), desenvolvendo pesquisas sobre a biologia e a ecologia de algumas populações da Floresta Nacional de Capão Bonito (SP). Sendo assim, o objetivo da presente pesquisa foi desenvolver um processo educativo participativo para a elaboração e implementação de um espaço educador na FPZSP, visando à conservação do mico-leão-preto. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida em uma abordagem qualitativa, com base nos pressupostos da educação ambiental crítica, especificamente da Pesquisa-Ação-Participante, uma vez que teve a intenção de produzir conhecimento (âmbito da pesquisa) para planejar e implementar um espaço educador (âmbito da ação) a partir do envolvimento e participação de 23 profissionais e 65 visitantes da FPZSP (âmbito da participação). Nesse sentido, a investigação apresentou um caráter processual e foi desenvolvida em quatro momentos: Momento I: diagnóstico participativo sobre conhecimentos e saberes em relação à espécie a partir da realização de entrevistas individuais com os profissionais e visitantes da FPZSP; Momento II: realização de dois grupos focais com a equipe da Divisão de Educação e Difusão (DED) e Equipe Técnica (ET) para elaboração participativa da proposta educativa do espaço; Momento III: atuação e diálogo entre a DED, ET, Divisão de Engenharia e Diretoria Administrativa para a implementação do espaço educador; Momento IV: análise reflexiva do processo de elaboração e implementação a partir de grupos focais com a equipe da DED e ET e criação participativa de materiais educativos sobre o espaço educador. A partir dos dados obtidos no Momento I foi possível estabelecer categorias relacionadas às estruturas e às ações educativas que seriam implementadas no espaço educador, as quais emergiram do processo dialógico estabelecido entre os participantes e a mestranda. Com base nessas categorias, elaboramos no Momento II uma proposta educativa contendo as características estruturais e educativas do novo espaço, o qual foi constituído por quatro quiosques temáticos, 23 painéis, dois jogos educativos e uma peça teatral de fantoches sobre a espécie. No Momento III da pesquisa, observamos o fortalecimento da participação da equipe técnica da FPZSP em diversas etapas do processo de implementação, desde a elaboração da comunicação visual e textual dos elementos educativos, até os processos operacionais de construção de estruturas. Além disso, a partir desse fortalecimento, a própria equipe participante sugeriu e elaborou, de forma participativa, dois materiais educativos sobre o espaço educador destinados à educadoras/es ambientais. Por fim, observamos durante o Momento IV que o uso de metodologias participativas contribuiu para enriquecer e fortalecer o processo de elaboração do espaço educador, uma vez que os participantes passaram a ser considerados como sujeitos que partilham laços para interpretar a realidade, de forma que esse diálogo está vinculado à ação coletiva para transformação da problemática socioambiental em questão, qual seja, a conservação do mico-leão-preto. Esperamos que a investigação contribua para o campo da pesquisa em educação ambiental em zoológicos e para as estratégias de conservação do mico-leão-preto, ao ressaltar que é possível realizar uma prática participativa, reflexiva, cooperativa e libertadora.

abstract: Firstly, this study uses community asset mapping guided by the Community Capitals Framework (CCF) to explore the linkages between Protected Areas (PAs), tourism and community livelihoods. Secondly, it assesses changes in community needs facilitated by community participation in wildlife-based tourism in a protected area setting. Thirdly and finally, the study assesses whether the introduction of community wildlife-based tourism in a protected area as a sustainable management tool has led to the spiraling up or down of community capitals. The study adopted qualitative research method approach and made use of data collected through community asset mapping supplemented by data from focus group discussions, households, key informants, and secondary data materials that were analyzed and interpreted in light of community capital framework. The Chobe National Park (CNP) and Chobe Enclave Conservation Trust (CECT); a community living adjacent to CNP in Botswana provides the context on which this study's discussion focuses. Results indicate that the accession of Botswana from colonialism through post colonialism era intertwined considerable institutional arrangement changes in the field of protected area governance that reflects evolutionary management styles. Protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods linkages are based on many inter-dependents of community capitals relationships which are dependent on community socio-economic activities. In assessing changes in community needs, the results indicate that participation in wildlife-based tourism has brought both positive and negative changes that have implications on both the status quo for community livelihoods and protected areas, namely; the influence of changes in community capitals dynamics, mechanization and commercialization of agriculture, government funded infrastructural development, income generation, and the commodification of some of the community capitals. Finally, the increased livelihoods options and diversification dynamics, fragile wildlife-livestock co-existence, heightened human-wildlife conflicts, environmental education and awareness are the emerging themes that explain how the introduction of tourism in a protected area setting affect the spiraling up and down of the community capitals dynamics. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Community Resources and Development 2013

Human activities, such as deforestation and industrial development, have drastically altered natural environments throughout the world, ranging from the loss of biodiversity to possible climatic changes on a global scale. The mapping of vegetation cover is an important source of information for the evaluation of the evolution of landscapes over time and space. The present study is based on a pioneering multitemporal analysis of the Atlantic Forest and Caatinga biomes on the right bank of the lower São Francisco River. This approach was used specifically to assess the effects of the deforestation process on the remaining populations of two endangered tit monkey species, Callicebus coimbrai Kobayashi & Langguth (1999), which inhabits the Atlantic Forest and is classified as endangered by the IUCN, and Callicebus barbarabrownae Hershkovitz (1990), which is found in the Caatinga, and is classified as critically endangered. The objective of this study was to produce a mutitemporal analysis of the historical deforestation process (1980-2010) in the study area and diagnose its effects on the distribution of Callicebus populations within this area. The study area (8º27 56 -12º3 35 S, 36º14 43 -40º59 4 W) encompasses the whole of the Brazilian state of Sergipe and the northern extreme of the neighboring state of Bahia, with a total area of approximately 80,000 km². Pre-processing involved the collection of images and the collection of data in the field. The multitemporal analysis included arithmetic operations (VI - Vegetation Index and PCA - Principal Components Analysis), visual interpretation, supervised classification, based on the Euclidian distance classifier, post classification, edition, and the production of the mosaic of the classified scenes. Eight classes were mapped - arboreal Caatinga, arboreal-shrub Caatinga, shrub Caatinga, Atlantic Forest, pasture, urban areas, water features, and cloud. The deforestation analysis took into account the biome, vegetation type, fragmentation processes and patterns, and records of Callicebus. The data from the 25 scenes were found to have errors of less than half a pixel (less than 15 meters), varying from 0.403 to 0.498 pixels. A total of 750 points were collected during the field excursions, supported GPS readings and approximately 8000 photographs. Large tracts of arboreal-shrubby Caatinga were found to persist in some areas over the three decades of the study period, whereas the Atlantic Forest was characterized by extensive deforestation and an increase in the areas of pasture. A total of 279 records of the presence/absence of titi monkeys were classified as presence, unconfirmed report, local extinction, and absence. A number of scenarios were analyzed and two theoretical models of deforestation created - (a) fragmentation and (b) nucleus. Model (a) is consistent with a greater probability of extinction of titi monkeys, due to the reduced size of the fragments, their isolation and lack of connectivity, whereas model (b) represents a more favorable scenario for conservation, with larger fragments and better connectivity. The area of transition between the distributions of the two species, where the genus appears to be absent, was also investigated. The data provide a number of insights into the conservation status of the species and their ecological requirements, as well as guidelines for decision-making on management strategies for the conservation of these taxa and the forest fragments they inhabit. / As atividades humanas têm mudado drasticamente a cobertura natural de nosso planeta. Mundialmente, a destruição de ecossistemas e o desenvolvimento industrial desenfreado provocam graves problemas ambientais, que vão desde a perda de biodiversidade até eventuais mudanças climáticas globais. O mapeamento da cobertura vegetal é um insumo científico essencial para avaliar a evolução da paisagem no tempo e no espaço. Neste trabalho, utilizamos a análise multitemporal, o qual teve caráter inédito para os biomas da região, a Mata Atlântica e a Caatinga, na verificação do histórico de desmatamento da região. Estas técnicas foram utilizadas para avaliar os efeitos do processo de desmatamento sobre as populações remanescentes de duas espécies ameaçadas, os macacos guigós, Callicebus coimbrai Kobayashi & Langguth (1999), que habita a Mata Atlântica e está classificada como ameaçada de extinção na categoria em perigo pela IUCN e Callicebus barbarabrownae Hershkovitz (1990) que habita a Caatinga e está classificada atualmente como criticamente em perigo de extinção. O objetivo foi realizar uma análise multitemporal do processo de desmatamento (1980-2000) da área de estudo e diagnosticar seus efeitos sobre as populações de Callicebus. A área de estudo (8º27 56 -12º3 35 de latitude Sul e 36º14 43 -40º59 4 de longitude Oeste) compreende o estado de Sergipe e parte da região do extremo norte do estado da Bahia atingindo uma área de aproximadamente 80.000 km2. O pré-processamento compreendeu a coleta e registro das imagens e trabalho de campo. A análise multitemporal incluiu operações aritméticas (IV Índice de Vegetação e ACP Análise por Componentes Principais), interpretação visual, classificação supervisada através do classificador de distância euclidiana, pós-classificação, edição e mosaico das cenas classificadas. Oito classes foram mapeadas: Caatinga arbórea, Caatinga arbórea-arbustiva, Caatinga arbustiva, Mata Atlântica, Pasto, Área Urbana, Hidrografia e Nuvens. A análise do desmatamento levou em conta o bioma, o tipo de vegetação, a fragmentação, a distribuição desta fragmentação, a redução ou aumento dos fragmentos de vegetação e o tipo de registro de Callicebus. O registro das 25 cenas atingiram erros menores que meio pixel (menor que 15 metros) variando de 0,403 a 0,498 pixels. Foram coletados 750 pontos nos trabalhos de campo, através do receptor GPS e aproximadamente 8000 fotos. Foram identificadas grandes áreas de Caatinga arbórea-arbustiva que se mativeram nas três décadas, enquanto que a Mata Atlântica foi caracterizada por extenso desmatamento e o aumento das áreas de pasto. Foram coletados 279 registros de presença/ausência do macaco guigó divididos nas categorias: registro de presença, relatos não confirmados, extinções locais e áreas vistoriadas sem registro. Diversos cenários foram analisados para dois modelos teóricos criados, o de fragmentação (a) e de redução de núcleo (b). O modelo (a) apresenta cenários que indicam a maior probabilidade de extinção do macaco guigó, devido ao tamanho reduzido dos fragmentos, isolamento e a falta de conectividade, enquanto o modelo (b) apresenta cenários mais favoráveis para conservação com grandes fragmentos e melhor conectividade. A área de transição entre a distribuição das duas espécies,onde o género parece estar ausente, também foi investigad. Os dados fornecem uma série de insights sobre o estado de conservação das espécies e seus requisitos ecológicos, bem como diretrizes para a tomada de decisões sobre as estratégias de manejo para a conservação destas espécies e os fragmentos florestais que elas habitam.

Populations of small prey species (< 92 kg) can be regulated by competition, habitat-mediated responses, climate change, disease and predation. Populations of small prey species have declined in the Addo Elephant National Park Main Camp Section since the reintroduction of apex predators (lion and spotted hyaena). One possible explanation is predation by lion and spotted hyaena. However, small prey species are not generally considered preferred prey items of these predators, hence their contribution to predator diets needs to be explored. Global Positioning System (GPS) cluster analysis has emerged as a viable approach to locate lion kills for lion diet estimation in AENP, however this technique is known to bias diet estimates to large prey species. Understanding the impact of lion predation on populations of small prey in Main Camp therefore requires better estimates of lion diets. This study investigated the potential underestimation of small prey species in lion diet estimates by combining the data from scat analysis and carcasses located at GPS clusters. The adjusted lion diets were then used to investigate if the impact of lion predation could explain declines in small prey, by relating lion prey preferences to prey population trends in Nyathi. Using the results from Nyathi, it could then be inferred whether lions could have been responsible for the declines observed in Main Camp. Six GPS-collared lions provided location data used to construct individual movement paths, along which spatio-temporal clusters of GPS locations (n = 4896) were identified for ground investigation. Carcasses (n = 643) were recorded at the GPS clusters and scats (n = 256) were collected at GPS clusters with or without carcasses. Data from the located carcasses and scat collections were then used to create a history of feeding events for each collared lion in Main Camp-Colchester and Nyathi from a) carcasses alone or b) a combination of scats and carcasses, based on an estimated short and long lion throughout period. Relative prey availability was estimated based on camera trapping in Nyathi in high lion, low lion and no lion use areas, as lions may encounter some prey species more than other prey species. Jacobs’ index prey preference was used to investigate the importance of prey species to lion diets at three landscape scales: 1) Nyathi, 2) lion UD and 3) core lion UD. Lastly, prey population trends were investigated in Nyathi to provide an indication of possible changes in prey populations. Large prey species dominated the adjusted diets of lions in Main Camp-Colchester and Nyathi. However, when comparing the GPS carcass-derived lion diet estimate to the combined lion diet estimate, small prey were underestimated more often than large prey in the GPS carcass-derived lion diet estimate. Missed feeding events were therefore a function of prey body size. In addition, missed feeding events were also representative of the lion diets based on carcasses, with the tendency for species more often consumed to be missed more often in the diet record. However, even though small prey species were underestimated, they represented the minority of species consumed by lions and were predominantly avoided by lions in Nyathi. Lion prey preferences thus did not correlate to the declines in small prey species in Naythi, suggesting other potential drivers are important for small population trends in Nyathi. Lion predation cannot be ruled out as a driver of the decline in small prey species in Main Camp, due to different ecological conditions (e.g. vegetation density) in Main Camp compared to Nyathi, during the observed small prey population declines. Lion prey preferences in Nyathi revealed fine-scale variations in species specific preferences by lions, as well as site-specific differences in prey preferences when compared to published lion prey preference meta-analyses. These findings suggest that metaanalysis studies should be used as a guideline from which hypotheses about local predatorprey interactions can be developed rather than as an absolute measure of prey preference.

M.Sc. / KwaNibela Peninsula is situated directly adjacent to the World Heritage Site of Lake St. Lucia, and lies between the northern parts of False Bay and Lake St. Lucia. The community of KwaNibela is not unlike many other rural communities in Africa, found in pristine areas with very little development having taken place over the years. However the pristine environment of KwaNibela is under threat from the community themselves, through excessive hunting, slash and burn bush clearing, the encroachment of alien plant species, and various uncontrolled forms of harvesting from the bush. Around the world eco-tourism has been seen as a way to sustainably fund conservation and benefit the local communities. For the conservation of the sand forests and surrounding wetland areas of KwaNibela it is necessary for the local people to see the benefit of conserving the area in their everyday life. Ecotourism has been investigated as the solution to conservation problems at KwaNibela. However it should not be neglected that for hundreds of years the people of KwaNibela have been harvesting from the bush and it is a part of their everyday life, so sustainable ways of using the natural resources in the surrounding area are also being looked at. A plan to demarcate a conservancy area is put forward and to allow limited harvesting and promote and develop tourism in that area. The education of the local community is also of paramount importance to the progression of the project, right from primary school level to the adult community members. The tourism potential of the area is immense; but depends on the development of the right infrastructure and skills to make it a success.

The loss of habitat to agriculture is a worldwide problem for biodiversity conservation. One species that has seemingly been able to adapt to the conversion of forests to farmlands is Mackinder’s eagle owl (Bubo capensis mackinderi), which inhabits highland areas, but little is known of its ecology, especially outside of protected areas. This study examined the impact of agricultural practices and farmer’s attitudes on the foraging and population ecology of the Mackinder’s eagle owl in central Kenya. Owl territories were monitored monthly from June 2004- October 2006 for signs of occupancy, breeding activity, mortality and to collect data on food resources. Nest site characteristics were measured for all known nests. Because previous studies showed an affinity for rodents, small mammals were trapped monthly using mark-recapture methodology. In each territory, the type and amount of farm crops were measured each month and farmers were interviewed about their knowledge and beliefs about owls. Mackinder’s eagle owls in central Kenya lived at extremely high density 0.87 owl pairs/km². This density was high compared to other populations of Mackinder’s eagle owl and to Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo) populations in Europe. Breeding success was 48% over three years and this compared well with other species of eagle owl inhabiting human-disturbed areas. All nests and roosts were located in river valleys, and all successful nest sites were located on cliffs or other inaccessible rocky terrain. Nest sites were located adjacent to farms, which provided for both open hunting and an abundance of prey. Breeding activity was concentrated after the rainy seasons and this was likely linked to prey availability after the rains. Agricultural activities generally had a positive effect on rodent populations. Small mammal trapping results revealed that rodents were over 14 times more abundant in farms than in adjacent grassland habitat. This population of Mackinder’s eagle owl had a very catholic diet and consumed mostly mammalian prey species including hares, giant rats, root rats, grooved-tooth rats and small rodents. Small rodents accounted for almost half of the owls’ diet and when their numbers increased, owls responded by consuming more of them, indicating the importance of farming activities to this population of owls. Other populations of eagle owl inhabiting human-disturbed areas had diet widths positively related to levels of habitat disturbance. This result supported optimal foraging theory that more productive environments have predators with more specialized diets, while patchy environments have generalist predators. The ecology of this population of Mackinder’s eagle owls was heavily influenced by human agricultural activities, which generally had a positive effect on their population. Farming activities changed rapidly both within and between seasons as plots were small and neighbouring farmers planted various crops at different times of the year and this was enhanced by irrigation in some areas. Year-round availability of forage within farms had a positive effect on owl prey species, some of which increased relative to the type and amount of crops found in farms. However, 57% of owl injuries and mortalities that occurred were related either directly or indirectly to human activities. Cultural prejudices against owls remain the biggest threat to this population’s long-term persistence. Farmer education was shown to play a significant role in overcoming negative beliefs about owls. Because Mackinder’s eagle owls are highly adaptable to anthropomorphic landscape changes, largely due to their adaptability as food generalists, they are one of the few top predators remaining in this highly disturbed agricultural system. However, populations within agricultural areas remain especially vulnerable to negative human attitudes towards owls due to their close association with human activities.

The leopard, Panthera pardus, is particularly threatened outside conservation areas in South Africa. This has been attributed to a reduction in natural habitat, decreasing natural prey populations, and commercial exploitation such as trophy hunting, and most importantly, persecution by stock farmers (Woodroffe 2001). The leopard population in the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve (BMR) has undergone a substantial decrease in range and numbers in the past 200 years, resulting in a highly fragmented population in the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve, and is regarded as being insecure. There is thus a need to investigate the nature and extent of leopard-stock farmer interactions to provide the foundation for an effective leopard conservation plan. Here I investigated the ecological and socio-economic factors influencing leopard-stock farmer conflict via landowner surveys and estimated potential leopard numbers using a prey-based density model. Leopards are not necessarily the most important causes of livestock mortality in the BMR. On average, leopards killed significantly less livestock (0.7 percent livestock per year) than black-backed jackals (4.7 percent per year) and caracal (2.5 percent per year), yet 67 percent of farmers had negative attitudes towards leopards. These negative attitudes were not significantly related to stock losses. However, most of the farmers that had negative attitudes towards leopards did not have any stock losses attributed to leopards. Thus if predator-stock conflict is not reduced it will result in the retaliatory killing of leopards. This will have severe consequences for this relatively small population (estimated at 59 – 104 individuals by the prey-based model), which may ultimately lead to the local extinction of these leopards (Woodroffe & Ginsberg 1998).