Stoppard (1989) contended that cognitive behavioral etiological explanations of depression were biased and utilized androcentric standards to determine an individual's vulnerability to depression. Stoppard's theory has been supported in part by scientists who have tested the gender role hypothesis of depression. This hypothesis proposes an overlap between social conceptualizations of depression and women. Research supporting this prediction has demonstrated a positive association between criteria for depressive disorders and prevailing feminine gender roles (e.g., Cook, 1990; Fisher, 1989; Landrine, 1988; Rothblum, 1983). The current project further investigated the gender role hypothesis of depression and Stoppard's (1989) criticism of Beck's cognitive theory of depression. Using a six-point Likert rating scale, a sample of 453 undergraduates evaluated items on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) in terms of how typical each item was of men and women. Responses were factor analyzed and assessed in relation to conceptualizations of women's gender roles and established criteria for depression. Exploratory factor analyses yielded a two-factor solution that accounted for 29 percent of the total variance among the BDI-II items. Based on the patterns in participants' responses, these two factors were labeled "Depression" and the "Absence of Depression." Further, the "Depression" factor was comprised of items more typical of women, while the "Absence of Depression" factor appeared to contain more items typical of men. Both of these factors were found to possess satisfactory internal reliability. Supplementary analyses suggested male and female participants did not differ in their ratings of the "Absence of Depression" factor. Both perceived this factor as typical of men. In contrast, males and females varied in their assessment of the "Depression" factor. Females rated the "Depression" factor higher than males, indicating that this factor was more typical of women. Multiple regression analyses also suggested that gender-related personality traits (e.g., instrumental & communal) and beliefs about discrimination against women differentially contributed to predicting responses to the "Depression" and the "Absence of Depression" factors. Theoretical, empirical, and clinical implications are offered for all of these results in the hopes of eliminating the overlap between social conceptualizations of depression and women, and enhancing the accurate identification, treatment, and investigation of depression. / Department of Counseling Psychology and Guidance Services

Women continue to be objectified by our society and this objectification is often internalized by women and can result in negative psychological consequences such as eating disorders and depression. One postulate of the self-objectification theory is that self-objectification can lead to a lack of internal awareness and this lack of internal awareness may mediate the relationship between self-objectification and mental health problems in women. To test this postulate, undergraduate women completed a number of self-report instruments measuring self-objectification, internal awareness, maladaptive eating behaviors, and depressive symptoms. Results indicated that internal awareness does not mediate the relationship between self-objectification and maladaptive eating behaviors or depression. However, both self-objectification and a lack of internal awareness independently explaine a significant amount of variance for the mental health variables measured. The relevance and implications of these results are discussed and future areas of research recommended. / Department of Psychological Science

Project (M.A.R.)--Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, 2005. / Abstract and vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 56-57).

Autism spectrum conditions are generally perceived to affect males, with the majority of studies quoting the ratio of four males being diagnosed with autism for each female. The potential implications of this for women on the spectrum or seeking a diagnosis are wide-ranging, including healthcare professionals’ disbelief in autism in women leading to difficulties obtaining a diagnosis and misdiagnosis of other mental health conditions. In this study, a grounded theory methodology was applied to data from fifteen online blogs to explore the experiences of adult women on the autism spectrum of diagnosis of autism, and of mental health issues. The study yielded two grounded theory models: of diagnosis of autism and of mental health, which are linked through misdiagnosis of and comorbid mental health conditions. The findings suggest that there is a need for clinicians to be aware of the unique presentation of autism in women, and of the additional mental health issues which women with autism commonly experience. Additionally, targeted autism-specific interventions may be required, focussing on the core difficulties of autism as opposed to the resultant emotional and mental health difficulties.

The present study examined the self-disclosure of socially anxious and depressed-mood women students within the context of a face-to-face dyadic interaction. It also examined the influence of the interaction on their levels of affect, physiological arousal, and acceptance of their partners. The impact of the interaction on their partners' affect and acceptance was also explored. The results showed that anxious and depressed-mood subjects exhibited different, and specific patterns of inappropriate disclosure. The socially anxious subjects exhibited reduced amounts of nonreciprocal disclosure which was best characterized as moderate in nature. The depressed-mood subjects displayed increased amounts of overly intimate, negatively valanced disclosure. The results also indicated that before the interaction the subjects varied on the measures of affect and arousal as a function of their status on the subject selection variables and that the interaction had different effects on the different types of subjects. The socially anxious subjects were characterized by lower preinteraction levels of positive affect and higher levels of negative affect. The interaction had a negative effect on them, it maintained their low levels of positive affect, high levels of negative affect, and increased their levels of physiological arousal. The depressed mood subjects were characterized by lower preinteraction levels of positive affect, and higher levels of negative affect and physiological arousal. The interaction was positive for them, however, as they experienced increases in their positive affect and decreases in their negative affect. The socially anxious subjects were rejected by their partners but induced neither positive nor negative affect in them. The depressed-mood subjects were not rejected by their partners but created an ambivalent emotional reaction in them. The results are discussed within an interpersonal framework and suggest that a reinterpretation of Coyne's (1976) model provides a good conceptual framework to explain these, and other recent results. The possible developmental framework for maladaptive interpersonal behaviours is explored within a modification of Arkin's (1981) social motivational model. The results of this study are also discussed in the context of a tripartite model of anxiety and depression and provide partial support for that model. / Arts, Faculty of / Psychology, Department of / Graduate

In the proposed study it is hypothesized that resiliency will moderate the relationship between child abuse and psychiatric outcomes. Secondly, it is expected that shame will mediate the above mentioned relationship. Mediation and moderation effects will be tested via SPSS REGRESSION. Data was collected from 160 women at California State University, San Bernardino. The following measures were used to examine the hypothesis: Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, Brief Symptom Inventory, Experience of Shame Scale, Self-Esteem Inventory, the Life Orientation Test-Revised, and the Social Support Inventory.

This study used a multi-method approach to explore factors associated with high and low depression in a sample of rural mothers living in poverty. From a sample of 117 women with very high or very low CES-D depression scores, 40 cases were randomly selected for in-depth qualitative analysis. Qualitative comments about a variety of issues were explored including health, mental health, childcare, transportation, community, social support, and family of origin experiences. Quantitative data were then used in response to themes that emerged from the literature and the qualitative findings. All 117 eligible participants were used for quantitative analysis to increase power. Analysis of the qualitative data revealed several critical differences between the two groups. Low risk participants mentioned fewer health issues and less severe health problems as compared to their high risk counterparts. Mental health issues were reported more in the high risk group, with this group being more likely to have multiple family members experiencing symptoms. All participants reported receiving social support, however, the low risk group reported positive social support experiences, while the high risk group reported ambivalent relationships with the people who provided them with social support. Reported family of origin experiences were quite different between the two groups, with the low risk group reporting more positive past and current relationships. Quantitatively, several interesting results were revealed, many confirming the qualitative findings. Mothers showing higher levels of depression reported significantly more health problems for themselves, their partners, and their children. Additionally, participant's work status, income, perceived adequacy of income, childhood welfare use, and presence of partner were significantly related to depression. Low risk respondents were more likely to be working, perceive their income as adequate, and have a partner. They were also less likely to have received welfare as a child and had higher incomes. The findings offer important implications for future research and policy. Risk for depression seems to be related to a variety of factors, indicating that something should be done to minimize an individual's likelihood toward experiencing depression. This study ultimately provided a clearer picture of the existence of depressive symptoms among women with children living in rural poverty. / Graduation date: 2003

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a protein found in the blood that is synthesized by the liver and has been extensively studied due to its role in inflammatory and atherosclerotic processes. The importance of this biomarker in its role in vascular risk factors is increased with several lines of evidence pointing to its association with cognitive decline. The association between CRP and depression has been increasingly analyzed by various cross-sectional studies. The research between CRP and depressive symptoms in older women has yet to generate consistent trends. In the present study, a series of regression analyses was used to explore the association between CRP and both cognitive function and depressive symptomatology among a group of rural-dwelling women. Associations were evaluated through the use of data from Project FRONTIER, a rural-based research looking at both physical and cognitive aspects of health in rural-dwelling adults and elders. Comparisons were made between Mexican American women and a group of non-Hispanic Caucasian women. CRP was a significant independent predictor of total depression (beta = -.11, t = -1.99, p =.048). CRP was also a significant independent predictor of symptoms associated with meaningless within depression (beta = -.16, t = -2.94, p =.004). Contrary to prediction, CRP was not a significant independent predictor of overall cognitive function or performance in five specific cognitive domains. There is still needed evaluation on racial/ethnic differences present in regard to the impact of varied health factors on mental health within a culturally rich, rural cohort. It is recommended that future studies utilize standardized measurement of cognitive function to facilitate a more thorough understanding and comparison of change in this particular population.

This study explored factors that lead to adaptation among married women in the military during the stressor of deployment. The Double ABCX Model of Family Stress and Adaptation (McCubbin & Patterson, 1 983a, 1 983b, 1 983c) provided a strong theoretical model for this study, on which the empirical model for this study was based. In this study's empirical model, the variables that led to adaptation include the stressor event of military deployment, pile-up of demands (marital pile-up, family pile-up, financial pile-up, and job pile-up), resources (personal resources, family system resources, and social support resources), and perception (perception of deployment and perception of all). The 1999-2000 United States Air Force Community Needs Assessment was analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling and Multiple Hierarchical Regression. The Structural Equation Modeling Analysis did not yield a path model and a Multiple Hierarchical Regression was executed in order to determine which variables in the path model contribute to adaptation. In this analysis, the independent variables were entered according to the theoretical consideration of the Double ABCX Model of Family Stress and Adaptation (McCubbin & Patterson, 1983a, 1983b, 1983c) and the proposed path model. The results Multiple Hierarchical Regression indicate that pileup of demands and resources provided a significant contribution to adaptation. However, deployment and perception did not contribute to the variance in adaptation, which was incongruent to previous findings. The most significant limitation of the study is the disadvantages of conducting a secondary analysis since measures available are less than ideal for the variables in the model. There were several benefits of the study, including the inclusion of women in the military, improvement of the Double ABCX Model of Family Stress and Adaptation (McCubbin & Patterson, 1983a, 1983b, 1983c), and potential early evaluation and intervention of families during periods of stress. Future research is indicated, focusing on extended deployments, qualitative studies exploring the role of perception in adaptation, other understudied population in the military (civilian husbands, men in the military, and dual military couples), and additional model improvement. / Graduation date: 2004

Background: Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, women carried, birthed, and cared for infants in a drastically changed world. For perinatal women, the sudden increase in stressors compounded an already vulnerable time where they are at an elevated risk of developing symptoms of psychopathology. Moreover, the pandemic exacerbated pre-existing racial health disparities and disproportionately impacted Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC)— particularly perinatal BIPOC women, due to the intersection of their race and perinatal status. This study investigated the relationships between COVID-19-related stressors and postpartum psychopathology using network analysis. Network analysis is used as an alternative technique for investigating the activation and maintenance of psychopathology and is increasingly used to examine the influence of external variables (e.g., stressors) on network dynamics. The relationship between psychological symptoms and stressors is typically examined in a unilinear manner—that is, stress causes psychopathology or vice versa. By using network analysis, we were able to investigate the bidirectional relationship between COVID-19-related stressors and postpartum psychopathology to reveal new insights into the individual stressor-symptom interactions that may underlie the emergence of psychological disorders for the perinatal population during the pandemic. Methods: Participants (N=630) were recruited via social media and listservs and completed an online Qualtrics survey. Data quality measures were used to identify repeated, incomplete, and potentially fraudulent responses, which were removed prior to data analysis. Goldbricker, inter-item correlations, and variance inflation factor analyses were used to address topological overlap and identify statistically unique items to be included in the networks. A comorbidity symptom network was estimated to investigate the relationship between postpartum depression and anxiety symptoms in all participants. Bridge symptoms between the two conditions were identified using bridge analysis and clique percolation analysis. Next, an expanded model was estimated to investigate the relationship between postpartum symptoms and COVID-19-related stressors. Node-wise predictability and moderation analyses were used to investigate the effects of adding external variables (i.e., positive experiences, maternal functioning domains, and predictors of psychopathology) to the expanded model. Finally, moderated networks were estimated to investigate differences in the structure of the comorbidity network and the expanded network for mothers from different racial and ethnic groups. Results: Fear-based symptoms were central in both the comorbidity and expanded networks and bridged postpartum anxiety and depression symptoms in the comorbidity network. The Depressed Mood and two Home Stress domains were central in the expanded network. Additional bridge symptoms in the comorbidity network included feeling overwhelmed, concentration difficulties, and feeling disliked by others, and in the expanded network included the Postpartum Stress, Emotional Stress, and Difficulty Adjusting domains. Moderation analyses revealed that the more mothers felt competent and the less challenging they perceived their infant’s temperament, the weaker the node connections were in their expanded networks. Furthermore, mothers with a history of prenatal depression, prenatal anxiety, or baby blues had denser expanded networks (i.e., stronger and more unique edges) compared to mothers with no history of these conditions. Contrary to expectations, moderation analyses revealed that: 1) social support and engaging in positive experiences during the pandemic strengthened connections between stressors and symptoms; 2) middle-income mothers had denser networks compared to low- and high-income mothers. Finally, racial network comparisons revealed that Black mothers' comorbidity and expanded networks were denser compared to all other racial groups. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the influence of major contextual changes, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, on network dynamics—that is, previously established peripheral network nodes (e.g., fear) may shift to the center during large-scale events. Therefore, researchers cannot assume that previously identified central nodes will remain as the main drivers of psychopathology irrespective of changes in context, as this may lead to a misdirection of prevention and intervention efforts. Further, our findings underscore that people with multiple intersecting vulnerabilities may be disproportionately impacted by these major events.