The purposes of the investigation were to determine if status of professional sports and professional athletes increases as male participation increases, if perceived status of 'athlete' increases with participation in sports that contain 'male' attributes, and if gender differences are related to status indicators. Sixty-eight students were administered a status-determinants questionnaire. A one-way ANOVA (gender) and a 2 x 12 ANOVA (gender x sport) were employed to determine status ratings of sports. A 3 x 2 (increase/decrease/no change x gender) Chi square was employed to determine status of sports, perceived masculinity of males/femininity of females, and status of the athlete related to gender attributes of sports.

M.Comm. / The main purpose of this study is an evaluation and empirical analysis of the economical, social and political role of women in a South African context. The subject is a widely discussed topic both internationally and in South Africa. The increasing importance of women in the social, political and economic arena is being realized and taken as a given part of development in any country. Within the social structure of an economy, the importance of the education system cannot be over emphasized. Opportunities for women in this aspect has increased rapidly over the past two decades, but a significant gap still exists between men and women. The connection between poverty and education is discussed, and it is found that there is a definite correlation. The higher the level of education, the lower the level of poverty. The supply of adequate health services are also a problem in most countries, including South Africa. Important aspects such as abortions and violence against women are also under discussion. The political arena is most probably the area where women is the least represented. Opportunities are scarce and the political scene is still one of male dominance. However, South Africa is definitely seen as one of the leaders in developing counties in opening doors for women in obtaining seats in regional 'councils and parliament. Concerning women's economic role, women earn far less than men for similar type of work done, and men are usually placed in more challenging positions. The distribution of income worldwide as well as in South Africa is still not evenly spread

by Jean K.M. Hung. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1993. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 111-119). / ACKNOWLEDGMENTS --- p.i / ABSTRACT --- p.ii / Chapter I --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1 / Chapter II --- METHODOLOGY --- p.7 / Chapter III --- BACKGROUNDS OF THE CASES --- p.10 / Chapter IV --- MOTHERS AND YOUNG DAUGHTERS --- p.23 / Nurturing baby girls --- p.23 / Caring for young daughters --- p.27 / Grandma -- mother's substitute --- p.31 / Attachment of the young daughter to the mother --- p.34 / Are boys superior to girls? --- p.36 / Summary --- p.37 / Chapter V --- MOTHERS AND THEIR ADOLESCENT DAUGHTERS --- p.39 / Socialization of daughters and the expectations between mothers and daughters --- p.39 / Mother's image in the eyes of the daugther --- p.45 / Mother's influence and mother's love --- p.47 / Daughter as mother's assistant --- p.52 / Communication between mother and daughter --- p.54 / Summary --- p.56 / Chapter VI --- MOTHERS AND THEIR MARRIED DAUGHTERS / Mother and her daughter's choice of mate --- p.58 / Financial support of natal family by adult daughter --- p.64 / Mother's role when her daughter becomes a mother --- p.67 / Mother's position in her married daughter's family --- p.69 / Daughter's position in her natal family and the kinship network --- p.72 / Mutual attachment and commitment --- p.74 / Care of sick and aged mother --- p.78 / Marriage gifts and the inheritance of family property --- p.81 / Summary / Chapter VII --- MOTHER-DAUGHTER RELATIONS IN A FAMILY CRISIS --- p.85 / The cases of political crisis --- p.85 / The cases of relationship crisis --- p.90 / Summary --- p.96 / Chapter VIII --- CONCLUSION --- p.98 / Relationships and culture --- p.98 / "Cultural transmission, cultural transformation and the mother-daughter link" --- p.101 / Mother-daughter solidarity and family associateship --- p.104 / ANNEX: Study ones own culture --- p.108 / REFERENCES --- p.111 / (In English) --- p.111 / (In Chinese) --- p.117

Introduction: There is a large literature across disciplines aimed at understanding the causes of the depression gap, defined as an excess of depression among women compared with men. Based on the totality of evidence to date, social stress appears to be an important explanation for the depression gap. Social stress theory highlights women’s disadvantaged social position relative to men, positioning gender differences in socio-economic opportunities as social stressors, while also acknowledging how gender socialization teaches women to respond to stressors in depressogenic ways from an early age. This dissertation applied social stress theory to better understand the social causes of the depression gap with three related aims. Aim 1 summarized the evidence for variation or stability in the depression gap in recent decades, through a systematic review and meta-regression of depression gap studies over time and by age. Aim 2 examined the evidence for a changing depression gap across birth cohorts, and tested the extent to which any changes over time were mediated by changing gender differences in education, employment, and housework rates, three indicators of broader trends in gendered social position through the 21st Century. Aim 3 examined whether women in the workforce with competing domestic labor roles were at increased risk of depression, and whether pro-family workplace benefits buffered the effects of competing roles. Methods: In aim 1, depression gap estimates were extracted through a systematic review of published literature (from 1982-present). Analytic datasets were comprised of 76 diagnostic-based estimates and 68 symptom-based estimates. For each dataset, meta-regression models estimated time and age variation in the depression gap, as well as the interaction between time and age group, to estimate the variation in the gap over time by age. Data from the National Longitudinal Surveys were utilized for aims 2 and 3. Depression was measured with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD), and the depression gap was defined as differences in mean CESD scores for women vs. men. The aim 2 sample included 13,666 respondents interviewed from 1992-2014. Hierarchical mixed models estimated the magnitude of the gender depression gap over time, and its relationship with 10-year birth cohort (range: 1957-1994) and whether any variation was mediated by gender differences in: those with a college degree or more, those who were employed full-time, and the average number of hours spent doing housework per week. The sample in aim 3 was limited to employed women ages 17-57 (n=3993). Generalized estimating equations estimated the relationship between competing roles and depression, and the interaction between competing roles and pro-family employee benefits on depression. Interaction results were compared to models estimating the effect of non-family-related benefits on the relationship between competing roles and depression. Results: In aim 1, there was no evidence of change in the depression gap over time. Compared with the reference group (i.e., respondents ages 60+), the age effect was appreciable among the youngest age group (age 10-19) (RR=1.44; 95% CI=1.19, 1.74), but did not differ for any other age groups. The age by time interaction was elevated for youngest age group (RR=1.27; 95% CI=1.0, 1.61), suggesting that, compared to the oldest age group, the diagnostic depression gap had increased among the youngest ages from 1982 to 2017. There was no evidence of time changes among any other age group. Results were similar for symptom-based studies. In aim 2, there was a linear decrease in the depression gap by 0.18 points across birth cohort (95% CI= -0.26, -0.10). The results of the mediation analysis estimated that an increasing ratio of college degree attainment mediated 39% of the gender depression gap across cohorts (95% CI= 0.18, 0.78). There was no evidence of mediation due to changing employment or housework ratios. In aim 3, there was evidence that women in competing roles reported a 0.56-point higher CESD score (95% CI= 0.15, 0.97), compared with women not in competing roles. The interaction between pro-family benefits and competing roles was associated with CESD scores (B=-0.44, p=0.023). More specifically, among women without access to pro-family benefits, those in competing roles reported a 6.1 point higher CESD score (95% CI=1.14, 11.1), compared with those not in competing roles, however, among women with access to these benefits, there was no association between competing roles and CESD scores (difference=0.44; 95% CI=-0.2, 1.0). Results were similar for non-family-related benefits. Women in competing roles without non-family-related benefits reported a 3.59 point higher CESD score than those not in competing roles (95% CI=1.24, 5.95) while among women with access to these benefits, there was no association between competing roles and CESD symptoms. Conclusion: This dissertation provided evidence to partially support the hypothesis that the depression gap is changing over time and is meaningfully related to the social environment, through which gender roles, responsibilities, and opportunities available to women and men are defined and reinforced. The results of these studies suggest that the depression gap may be expanding and contracting over time for different age groups. Understanding the social causes of the depression gap is important to reduce the present and future burden of the depression gap, and to understand the fundamental processes through which depression disparities may be perpetuate or attenuated in adolescence and beyond.

In India, various underlying gender related structural factors (i.e., interpersonal violence, lack of social supports, limited opportunities, poverty, and gender biases in mental health practice) serve to keep women living with serious mental illness isolated in psychiatric institutions. Despite this, narratives of women living with serious mental illness and their experiences within institutions have received limited visibility in research. The present study addresses this crucial gap by documenting the lives of women who are former inpatients of a mental hospital and are currently residing at a halfway home in India. I adopted a social constructivist narrative approach to incorporate women’s experiences and examine the context and ways in which their experiences were shaped and situated. Specifically, the study explored the following questions. 1. How do women describe their experiences and perceptions related to the illness and living at a psychiatric institution (i.e., mental hospital and the halfway home)? 2. What are the physical and social characteristics of the halfway home serving women living with serious mental illness in India? I answered the first question using narrative data, collected through 34 in-depth interviews with 11 women residents at the halfway home, I examined the second question using field notes that included everyday observations and interactions with women residents, staff members, and interviews with the Director, the Psychologist, the Social Worker, and the Head Housemother at the halfway home. Thereafter, using the theories of self-in-relation (Miller, 1976; Surrey, 1985), institutionalization (Goffman, 1961), and intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1990), I dissect the two research questions further to analyse how women’s experiences and perceptions related to illness and institutionalization are shaped by their gender and social positioning. Using a gender lens, I also critically examine the psychosocial rehabilitation program at the halfway home and ways in which it supports women living with serious mental illness. I used Fraser (2004) guidelines to analyse the narrative data and Emerson, Fretz & Shaw (1995) guidelines to analyse field notes. Women’s narratives highlight that gender and social positioning significantly shape their experiences of living with mental illness in India. Women perceived their discriminatory social context, particularly restrictive gender norms, a lifetime of denied opportunities, loss of relationships, and violence both in the natal and marital family as factors that contributed and/or exacerbated their illness experiences. Women’s narratives of institutionalization were also embedded in discriminatory social contexts. Poverty and gender disadvantage were the primary reasons for women’s admission to mental hospitals. Furthermore, the shift in care from institutions like mental hospitals to less restrictive institutions like the halfway home did not necessarily improve the lives of women living with serious mental illness. Women share several gender-specific barriers to leaving the halfway home. Furthermore, psychiatric institutions often mirrored patriarchal social relations by perpetuating illness and gender related biases in the delivery of care.

This thesis traces the evolution and emergence of the new-vice regal woman during a high point of the British Empire. The social, political and economic forces of the age, which transformed British society, presented different challenges and responsibilities for all women, not least those of the upper-class. Aristocratic women responded to these challenges in a distinctive manner when accompanying their husbands to the colonies and dominions as vice-regal consorts. In the last years of Queen Victoria’s reign a unique link was established between the monarchy and her female representatives throughout the Empire. The concept of the new vice-regal woman during the period 1884-1914 was explored through three case studies. The imperial stores of Lady Hariot Dufferin (1843-1936), Lady Ishbel Aberdeen (1857-1939), and Lady Rachel Dudley (c.1867-1920), establishes both the existence and importance of a new breed of vice-regal woman, one who was a modern, dynamic and pro-active imperialist. From 1884-1914 these three new vice-regal women pushed established boundaries and broke new ground. As a result, during their vice-regal lives, Ladies Dufferin, Aberdeen and Dudley initiated far reaching organisations in India, Ireland, Canada and / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Thesis (Ph. D.)--State University of New York at Binghamton, Department of History, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 210-223).

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