Over the past two decades, the geography of sport has become a rapidly expanding body of literature. Although a potentially dynamic field of research, there are at present several theoretical weaknesses. First, enquiry has focused on diffusion patterns to the exclusion of the processes that create these patterns. Second, sports scholars in the discipline tend to participate in an isolated discourse with few connections to the broader scope of geography or with the expansive non-geographical sports literature. One key focus of debate outside the discipline centres on the role of the city in the modernisation of sporting activities. 'Modernisation' theory is valuable for establishing the intricate links between sport, as a process, and the social fabric. Despite this advantage, critics have argued that these links are analytically weak and the relationship between cities and sport should be more broadly theorised. In an attempt to provide a broader theoretical basis for analyzing sport as a cultural process, as well as a means of overcoming the failings of modernisation theory, Raymond Williams' 'cultural materialism' is examined. Williams Identifies three cultural elements in society, which constantly interact through the process of hegemonic control: the dominant, residual and emergent cultures. The case-study of lacrosse, examined through the lens of 'cultural materialism', illustrates the interaction between these three elements of culture. Among the residual North American Native cultures, lacrosse was one of the most widespread of outdoor games. Shrouded in religious symbolism and ritual, lacrosse was closely tied to economic provision and group protection. Escalating contact with European culture and the Imposition of foreign values and ideas resulted in the modification and eventual transformation of lacrosse. Increasingly, the ritual assumed a purely recreational function. During the early nineteenth century, Europeans began organising lacrosse as a 'modern' sport. The early clubs remained socially- exclusive and membership was strictly reserved for the social elite. Submerged in a legacy of British values, this dominant cultural element also left an Impression on the sport. As the dominant British cultural Influence waned, an emerging Canadian culture became a decisive factor in the history of lacrosse. Further modifications to the game were made as spectators and gate-receipts became increasingly important. Changing values and attitudes led lacrosse on a path towards professionalism. Despite the widespread acceptance of 'play for gain', the dominant amateur ideal prevailed. Lacrosse remained nationally amateur and suffered a serious decline after the first few decades of the twentieth century. The Interplay between the dominant British, the residual Native and emerging Canadian cultures, presents a view of the struggle for hegemony over control of a cultural process. This study's primary conclusion is that Williams' theory of 'cultural materialism' is a powerful interpretive framework for the geography of sport. It overcomes the theoretical weaknesses of geographical sports research as well as addressing the problems of the modernisation theory. In addition, 'cultural materialism' provides an invaluable interpretation of the concept of hegemony. Williams' theory places sport firmly in the context of particular social, economic and cultural heritages. It leads geographers away from a narrow concern with pattern to a fuller exploration of process. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

This research focuses on the function of sport fan identity in seeking optimal psychological distinctiveness. The purpose of the study was to investigate the mechanisms through which sport fans balance the psychological needs for distinctiveness and assimilation through the expression of their team identity, thereby contributing to a stronger explanation of how these psychological needs function within the attachment process towards stronger fan loyalty. Although a growing body of knowledge has addressed the internalisation of a sport object into the self-concept, existing theoretical frameworks provide limited explanation of the mechanisms through which these needs are met. Literature on team identity and psychological distinctiveness was reviewed in order to derive a set of research questions to investigate the use of the structural reality mechanism and perceptual framing mechanism at an individual and group level for sport fans at different levels of psychological connection to their chosen team. A two-phase mixed method research design allowed a purposeful stage-based investigation of psychological distinctiveness. The findings provide evidence of the use of both the structural reality mechanism and the perceptual framing mechanism as fans use their team identity to balance their needs for belonging and distinctiveness. The results of the study found that the mechanisms were involved at both higher stages of iii psychological connection to their chosen team, as well as at both individual level and group level. The study contributes the optimal distinctiveness mechanisms of structural reality and perceptual framing to the revised Psychological Continuum Model theoretical framework, thus examining sport fan identity motives beyond selfesteem. The study also contributes to the limited research undertaken within the sport of rugby and in South Africa, while providing additional mixed method and qualitative analysis guidance for researching sport fandom. The findings of this research are relevant to sport marketers, sponsorship managers, and sport broadcasters who wish to facilitate stronger and more positive relationships between fans, as well as with the sport object. Marketers are able to use the mechanisms and strategies examined in this study to create additional opportunities for attached and allegiant fans to express their distinctiveness within the attachment process towards stronger fan loyalty. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / pagibs2014 / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / PhD / Unrestricted

No description available.

AFRIKAANS: Die doel met hierdie studie is om doeloriëntering, intra- en interpersoonlike klimaat as verskynsels te ondersoek en die dinamiese relasies tussen hierdie genoemde verskynsels na te vors. Die eerste fase van die studie is om met kwantitatiewe navorsing die relasies tussen die doeloriëntering van die sportdeelnemer en sy persepsies van die doeloriëntering van sy ouers en afrigter te bepaal, asook om die invloed van interpersoonlike verhoudinge (sportdeelnemer se verhouding met sy ouers en afrigter) op intrapersoonlike verhouding (sportdeelnemer se verhouding met homself) en doeloriëntering te ondersoek. Die gestandaardiseerde TEOSQ (Task and Ego Orientation Sport Questionnaire) van Duda (1989) en intra- en interpersoonlike verhoudingskaal van Minnaar (1997) is deur 112 manlike en vroulike Suid-Afrikaanse kompeterende sportdeelnemers tussen die ouderdomme van 17 en 25 jaar voltooi. Die result ate het die hipoteses ondersteun dat daar 'n positiewe verband tussen die doeloriëntering van ouers en afrigters met die doeloriëntering van die sportdeelnemer, asook tussen inter- en intrapersoonlike verhoudinge van die sportdeelnemer bestaan. Die hipotese dat daar 'n positiewe verband tussen 'n konstruktiewe intrapersoonlike verhouding en taakorientering bestaan en tussen 'n negatiewe intrapersoonlike verhouding en ego oriëntering by die sportdeelnemer, kon net ten dele bewys word. Die hipotese dat daar 'n korrelasie tussen interpersoonlike verhoudinge en die sportdeelnemer se doeloriëntering bestaan, kon nie bevestig word nie. Die tweede fase is om met kwalitatiewe navorsing bogenoemde verskynsels en relasies te ondersoek en te verstaan waar doeloriëntering vandaan kom en hoe doeloriëntering by die sportdeelnemer deur interaksie met ouers en afrigters vasgelê word. 'n Verdere doel van hierdie deel van die navorsing was om te bepaal watter verskynsel lê die grondslag vir die vorming van die ander, met ander woorde is intra- ¬en interpersoonlike verhoudinge spontane byprodukte van doeloriëntering of is doeloriëntering die byproduk van intra- en interpersoonlike verhoudinge. Data is verkry deur in-diepte onderhoude met sewe kompeterende sportdeelnemers te voer. Die onderhoude is op band opgeneem, na geskrewe teks oorgedra en ontleed. Vanweë die eksploratiewe aard van die navorsing is geen hipoteses vir hierdie deel van die studie gestel nie. Die resultate illustreer waarom en hoe die interaksie met ouers en afrigters die doeloriëntering van die sportdeelnemer beïinvloed en vorm. ENGLISH: The purpose of this study is to research goal orientation, intra- and interpersonal relations as constructs and to determine the dynamic relations between these phenomena. The first phase is to determine with quantitative research the relations between the goal orientation of the participant and his perception of the goal orientation of his parents and coach, and also to determine the influence of interpersonal relations (sport participants' relations with parents and coaches) on intrapersonal relations (the sport participant's relation with himself) and goal orientation. The standardized TEOSQ (Task and Ego Orientation Sport Questionnaire) of Duda (1989) and intra- and interpersonal relations scale of Minnaar (1997) were administered to 112 male and female South African competitive sport participants between the ages of 17 and 25 years. The results of the study confirmed the hypotheses that positive relations exist between goal orientation of parents/coaches and the sports participant, as well as between intra- and interpersonal relations of the participant. The hypothesis that a positive correlation exists between a constructive intrapersonal relation and task orientation as well as between a destructive intrapersonal relation and ego orientation in sport could only partially be verified. The hypothesis that a correlation exists between interpersonal relationships and goal orientation of the sport participant could not be verified. The second phase of the study is to further investigate the above findings with qualitative research to understand where and how goal orientation is formed by interaction between the sport participant and his parents and coach. Another goal of this part of the research was to determine which of the constructs forms the foundation for the other, in other words does intra- and interpersonal relations lead to goal orientation or does goal orientation lead to intra- and interpersonal relations. Seven competitive sport participants were interviewed for this part of the study. The interview was taped, transferred to text and then ana1ysed. Due to the exploratory nature of this research no hypotheses were set for this part of the study. Results illustrate how and why the interaction with parents and coaches influence the goal orientation of the sport participant. / Thesis (DPhil (Human Movement Science))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Biokinetics, Sport and Leisure Sciences / unrestricted

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / The purpose of this study is to identify the user features for an online sports community network. Social networks sites are on a rapid increase. Designers of these sites need to consider what features are critical to optimally facilitate their users’ behaviour on these sites. This identification of features will seek to enhance the growth and development of a site’s social communities and allow for its ultimate success. This study focuses on establishing the social networking ecosystem by identifying the role of social networks in society, the user behaviour trends on social network sites and the key features required for a social network site. Furthermore, the study establishes the role of sports fans in society and digital trends for online sports fans visiting sports sites. This study met the research objectives from the findings gained from relevant literature and the employment of an empirical research study. The latter was carried out by means of an online questionnaire targeting an audience that qualified to be both social media lovers and online sports fans. The research disclosed fundamental findings with regards to the user behaviour and frequency of usage of both social network sites and sports sites. Specifically, it was determined that the technological behaviours in the social technographic profile for online users were aligned to those of the social technographic profile for social media lovers and online sports fans. Consequently, the key features of social network sites and most frequently-used features on sports sites could be used to identify the features required for an online sports community network. The main conclusion drawn from this research was a list of features required for a sports community network. These features were determined for the initial launch phase of a sports community network. Enhancement and development of new features would be required to facilitate the user requirements as the site grows. It is therefore important for the success of the sports community site that the owners or designers continuously review the user requirements and adapt, enhance and develop features as the site gains traction. This research study recommends that the list provided be used for the initial design and launch phase of an online sports community network. This list should be constantly evaluated from a usercentric perspective as the site grows.

The purposes of the investigation were to determine if status of professional sports and professional athletes increases as male participation increases, if perceived status of 'athlete' increases with participation in sports that contain 'male' attributes, and if gender differences are related to status indicators. Sixty-eight students were administered a status-determinants questionnaire. A one-way ANOVA (gender) and a 2 x 12 ANOVA (gender x sport) were employed to determine status ratings of sports. A 3 x 2 (increase/decrease/no change x gender) Chi square was employed to determine status of sports, perceived masculinity of males/femininity of females, and status of the athlete related to gender attributes of sports.

No description available.

This study was designed to determine the degree of homophobia, expressed lesbian sexual preference behavior, and attitudes toward lesbianism among the female team sport college athlete and the female team sport recreational player. It was hypothesized that the female team sport college athlete would be less homophobic, would express greater lesbian sexual preference behavior, and would possess more positive attitudes toward lesbianism than the female team sport recreational player. There were 32 female team sport college athletes representing four Utah university/college campuses and one Oregon university/college campus; 37 female team sport recreational players representing four Utah recreational team and two Oregon recreational teams. Data were collected during the months of March through June, 1983. All subjects participating were volunteers. The subjects' ages ranged from 18-35, the mean age being 23.5 years. The instruments used in this study were: 1) Index of Attitudes Toward Lesbians (Guthrie, 1982), 2) Demographic/Social Variable Data (Guthrie, 1982). The research administered the instruments individually to each volunteer, therefore there was a 100% return. Chi-Square Analyses were used and the major results indicated that there were no significant differences in the degree of homophobia, lesbian sexual preference behavior, and positive attitudes toward lesbianism between the two groups. Post hoc analyses of data were performed to determine whether age was a factor in degree of homophobia, the expression of lesbian sexual preference behavior, and the expression of positive attitudes toward lesbianism. These analyses revealed a large percentage of those individuals in the age group 20-24 years expressed non-homophobia, lesbian sexual preference behavior, and positive attitudes towards lesbianism. Since this age group (20-24 years) encompasses a great proportion of the college age women who participate in athletics, it is hypothesized that exposure, involvement, and attitudes concerning lesbianism are noticeably prevalent in the college athletic environment.

The question of what constitutes a culture has often been answered in one phrase: shared knowledge. Recent developments in both the theory and mathematics of examining this shared cultural knowledge allow researchers to produce mathematical models of informants' knowledge and perceptions of the culture they belong to. Many studies in cognitive anthropology have utilized these theoretical and mathematical tools: the present research sought to integrate a research design (based on the theory and mathematics mentioned above) with a relatively new cultural domain: the culture of sports. Three main question pertaining to cultural knowledge were addressed in this research: 1) Did an informant's behavioral embeddedness in sports correspond to their cognitive embeddedness? 2) Did informants' behavioral embeddedness (as a qroup) affect their perceptions of the sports culture they belonqed to? 3) Did informants' coqnitive embeddedness (as a qroup) affect their perceptions of the sports culture they belonged to? Behavioral embeddedness was measured using an instrument that contained 96 bioqraphical variables primarily designed to investigate an informant's participation in sports. Cognitive embeddedness was measured using an instrument based on consensus theory. Subjects' perceptions (called "world view" in this study) of sports were based on their judgements of similarities and differences among 10 sports. These judgements were evoked by triadic analysis. Both consensus theory and triadic analysis followed the framework laid out in Romney and Weller's systematic Data Analysis. Sixty-six informants completed a self-administered survey containing the three parts mentioned above. Because of the nature of the sample used, this study was treated as an ethnography. It was hypothesized that a) behavioral and cognitive embeddedness were correlated and, b) more culturally embedded individuals would have more "sophisticated" perceptions of sports culture. The first hypothesis was not supported: only weak correlations were found between cognitive embeddedness and variables measuring behavioral embeddedness. For the second hypothesis, the exact opposite was found: the more culturally embedded groups of informants had less "sophisticated" perceptions of the sports culture they belonged to.

The purpose of the current study is to determine whether eliciting the need for assimilation or the need for differentiation influences individuals’ identification with a given team. Team identification is defined as a fan’s psychological connection to a team; that is, the extent to which the fan views the team as an extension of him or herself (Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001). It is important to understand potential factors that may motivate and potentially increase one’s identification with a particular team. The sample consisted of 106 participants attending Western Kentucky University. The participants completed the Sport Fandom Questionnaire (SFQ) and the Need for Affiliation (nAff) scale. Participants were presented with one of three randomly assigned scenarios, and were asked to transcribe two memories, dependent upon the previously assigned scenario. Following this, the gambling scenario was described. Participants rated how identified they were with both the underdog and favored team, regardless of their choice. It was hypothesized that those who are primed to experience the feelings of assimilation will wager more money on and be more highly identified with a team that is a prohibitive favorite. Also, it was hypothesized that those who are primed to experience the feelings of differentiation will wager more money on and be more highly identified with a team that is a large underdog. Results indicated that the hypotheses were not supported; however, significance was approached, as participants who were primed for feelings of differentiation tended to choose the underdog football team. Regardless of condition, participants tended to wager more money on the favorite football team, as opposed to the underdog football team.