Proteins are known to form functional clusters in plasma membranes. In order to identify individual proteins within clusters we developed a method to visualize by atomic force microscopy (AFM) the cytoplasmic surface of native plasma membrane, excised from Xenopus laevis oocyte and spread on poly-L-lysine coated glass. After removal of the vitelline membrane intact oocytes were brought in contact with coated glass and then rolled off. Inside-out oriented plasma membrane patches left at the glass surface were first identified with the lipid fluorescent marker FM1-43 and then scanned by AFM. Membrane patches exhibiting the typical phospholipid bilayer height of 5 nm showed multiple proteins, protruding from the inner surface of the membrane, with heights of 5 to 20 nm. Modelling plasma membrane proteins as spherical structures embedded in the lipid bilayer and protruding into the cytoplasm allowed an estimation of the respective molecular masses. Proteins ranged from 35 to 2,000 kDa with a peak value of 280 kDa. The most frequently found membrane protein structure (40/μm2) had a total height of 10 nm and an estimated molecular mass of 280 kDa. Membrane proteins were found firmly attached to the poly-L-lysine coated glass surface while the lipid bilayer was found highly mobile. We detected protein structures with distinguishable subunits of still unknown identity. Since X. laevis oocyte is a generally accepted expression system for foreign proteins, this method could turn out to be useful to structurally identify specific proteins in their native environment at the molecular level. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Os ciclos claro-escuro (CE) são considerados importantes pistas para o ajuste de relógios biológicos. Alças de retroalimentação positiva e negativa de transcrição e tradução de genes de relógio são a base molecular subjacente tanto a relógios centrais como periféricos. A opsina não visual, melanopsina (Opn4), expressa na retina de mamíferos, é considerada o fotopigmento circadiano pois é responsável pelo ajuste do relógio biológico endógeno. Este fotopigmento também está presente nos melanóforos de Xenopus laevis, onde ele foi descrito pela primeira vez, mas seu papel nestas células ainda não está completamente esclarecido. Espécies de vertebrados não mamíferos expressam duas ou mais melanopsinas e, no caso de X. laevis, há dois genes, Opn4m and Opn4x. Melanóforos de X. laevis respondem à luz com dispersão dos grânulos de melanina, a resposta máxima sendo atingida no comprimento de onda correspondente àquele de excitação máxima da melanopsina. Entre vários hormônios, endotelinas também dispersam os melanossomos em melanóforos de Xenopus através de via similar àquela evocada pela luz. Tendo esses fatos em mente, decidimos investigar se a luz e a endotelina modulam a expressão de genes de relógio em melanóforos de Xenopus, usando PCR quantitativo para avaliar os níveis relativos de RNAm de Per1, Per2, Clock e Bmal1. Ciclos CE promoveram alterações temporais na expressão de Per1, Per2 e Bmal1. Pulsos de 10 min de luz azul aumentaram a expressão de Per1 e Per2, diminuíram a expressão de Opn4x, mas não tiveram efeito sobre Opn4m. Ainda mais, diferentes localizações foram mostradas para cada melanopsina: imunorreatividade para OPN4x foi vista principalmente na membrana celular, enquanto OPN4m foi imuno-localizada no núcleo. Estes resultados em conjunto apontam para funções diferenciais das duas melanopsinas neste modelo. A translocação de grânulos de melanina foi maior quando um pulso de luz azul foi aplicado na presença de endotelina ET-3. E os níveis de RNAm de Clock exibiram variação temporal em melanóforos submetidos a CE após tratamento com ET-3 10-9M, enquanto a expressão de Per1 não foi afetada pelo tratamento hormonal. Em adição, ensaios farmacológicos indicaram que as respostas de Per1 e Per2 à luz azul são evocadas através da ativação da via de fosfoinositídeos, com crosstalks com GMPc/proteina quinase G (PKG) para ativar os genes de relógio. Estes dados sugerem a participação de melanopsina na foto-ativação de genes de relógio, e apontam para uma participação menor de endotelina como sincronizador desta linhagem celular. Nossos resultados constituem uma importante contribuição ao campo emergente dos relógios periféricos os quais, em espécies de não mamíferos têm sido mais extensivamente estudados em Drosophila melanogaster e Danio rerio. Dentro deste contexto, nós mostramos que os melanóforos de Xenopus laevis representam um modelo ideal para a compreensão da modulação de ritmos circadianos por luz e hormônios / Light-dark cycles (LD) are considered important cues to entrain biological clocks. Positive and negative feedback loops of clock gene transcription and translation are the molecular basis underlying the mechanism of both central and peripheral clocks. The non-visual opsin, melanopsin (Opn4), expressed in the mammalian retina, is considered a circadian photopigment because it is responsible of entraining the endogenous biological clock. This photopigment is also present in the melanophores of Xenopus laevis, where it was first described, but its role in these cells is not fully understood. Non-mammalian vertebrate species express two or more melanopsins, and in X. laevis there are two melanopsin genes, Opn4m and Opn4x. X. laevis melanophores respond to light with melanin granule dispersion, the maximal response being achieved at the wavelength of melanopsin maximal excitation. Among various hormones, endothelins also disperse melanosomes in Xenopus melanophores through a similar pathway as light does. Therefore, we decided to investigate whether light and endothelin modulate clock gene expression in Xenopus melanophores, using quantitative PCR to evaluate the relative mRNA levels of Per1, Per2, Clock and Bmal1. LD cycles elicited temporal changes in the expression of Per1, Per2 and Bmal1. A 10 min pulse of blue light increased the expression of Per1 and Per2, decreased Opn4x expression, but had no effect on Opn4m. In addition, a different localization was shown for each melanopsin: immunoreactivity for OPN4x was mainly seen in the cell membrane, whereas OPN4m was immunolocalized in the nucleus. These results taken together point to a differential role for each melanopsin in this model. Melanosome translocation was greater when a blue light pulse was applied in the presence of endothelin ET-3. And mRNA levels of Clock exhibited temporal variation in melanophores under LD cycles after 10-9 M ET-3 treatment, whereas Per1 expression was not affected by the hormone treatment. In addition, pharmacological assays indicated that Per1 and Per2 responses to blue light are evoked through the activation of the phosphoinositide pathway, which crosstalks with cGMP/protein kinase G (PKG) to activate the clock genes. These data suggest the participation of melanopsin in the photo-activation of clock genes and point to a minor role of endothelin as synchronizer for this cell line. Our results add an important contribution to the emerging field of peripheral clocks, which in non-mammalian species have been mostly studied in Drosophila melanogaster and Danio rerio. Within this context, we show that Xenopus laevis melanophores represent an ideal model to understanding circadian rhythms modulation by light and hormone

Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Erweiterung des etablierten Stu-dienmodells Xenopus laevis zur Untersuchung der Wirkung von endocrine disruptors auf die Reproduktionsbiologie von Amphibien. Um einen Einblick in die grundlegenden Mechanismen der sexuellen Differenzierung von Amphibien zu gewinnen, wurden die Konzentrationen bestimmt, mit denen androgene und estrogene Sexualsteroide während der larvalen Entwicklung in verschiedenen Stadien von Xenopus vorliegen. Parallel wurde das Auftreten der korrespondierenden Rezeptoren im Verlauf der Entwicklung untersucht, über welche die hormonelle Wirkung vermittelt wird. Auf der Basis der gewonnenen Erkenntnisse konnte eine neue Hypothese zur sexuellen Differenzierung von Amphibien entwickelt und vorgestellt werden. Sie stellt das Enzym 5alpha-Reduktase, das die Umwandlung von Testosteron in das potentere und nicht weiter aromatisierbare Androgen Dihydrotestosteron (DHT) bewerkstelligt, in den Mittelpunkt des Prozesses der Geschlechtsdifferenzierung. Abhängig von der genetisch bedingten Expression dieses Enzyms kommt es zu einem höheren oder niedrigeren Auftreten des DHT und damit zu Unterschieden im Verhältnis von DHT zu Estradiol (E2). Der Charakter dieses Verhältnisses scheint der entscheidende Auslöser für die Entwicklung eines weiblichen oder männlichen Phänotyps zu sein. In einem zweiten, anwendungsorientierten Teil wurde untersucht, in wie weit die bislang auf Laboruntersuchungen beschränkte Arbeit mit X. laevis auf Feldstudien erweiterbar ist und ob sich auf diese Weise gewonnene Daten auf die Situation heimischer Amphibien übertragen lassen. Parallele Expositionen des Krallenfrosches einerseits und des Grasfrosches (Rana temporaria) andererseits gegenüber realen Medien unter Freilandbedingungen bestätigten die hervorragende Eignung des Studienmodells X.laevis zur Beurteilung endokriner Belastungssituationen. Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich durch die Verwendung von Festphasenextrakten die endokrinen Wirkungen komplexer Matrizes unter standardisierten Laborbedingungen charakterisieren lassen. Rezeptorbindungsstudien sowie Untersuchungen zur Genexpression spezifischer Marker, histologische Betrachtungen von Gonadengewebe und die Bestimmung von Geschlechterverhältnissen ermöglichten Aussagen auf vielfältigen Nachweisebenen. Auf diese Weise konnte das Potenzial, mit dem Proben jeder Art, sowohl durch kurz- als auch durch langfristige Exposition, adverse Effekte auf das amphibische Hormonsystem hervorrufen können, umfassend und differenziert analysiert werden. / The presented work aims to contribute to the various opportunities of studying the effects of endocrine disruption on sexual differentiation in amphibians provided by the well established model Xenopus laevis. In order to gain insight into the basic mechanisms underlying the sexual differentiation in amphibians, the concentrations of androgen and estrogen sexual steroids during several stages of the larval development of Xenopus were determined. In parallel, the ocurrence of the corresponding receptors, which mediate the effects of the respective hormones, was observed. Based on the results of the studies described, a new hypothesis regarding sexual differentiation in amphibians is presented, which assignes the enzyme 5alpha-reductase as the central element of sexual development. This enzyme converts the androgen testosterone into dihydrotestosterone, which can not be aromatized into estradiol. Depending on the genetic sex of the indivual, genexpression of 5a-reductase may differ and therefore lead to a characteristic ratio of androgens and estrogens. We suggest, that this ratio might be the essential trigger for amphibians to develop into a male or a female. A second part aimed to enlarge the Xenopus model to the use in field studies and to proof the transferability of such data to the situation of endemic amphibians. Exposure in parallel of Xenopus on one hand and the green frog Rana temporaria on the other to the effluent of a bavarian wastewater treatment plant revealed the exceeding suitability of the model to asess the endocrine charge of the environment. Furthermore, the use of solid phase extracts derived from natural samples allowed the characterization of the respective endocrine potential under standardized laboratory conditions. Rezeptor binding studies, detection of genexpression of specific biomarkers, histological examination of gonadal tissue and the determination of sex ratios provided the evaluation of effects on several levels of investigation. By this means the Xenopus model offers the opportunity to assess the ability of any kind of sample to cause endocrine impacts on amphibians after short time as well as after long time exposure in a broad and at the same time differentiated way.

Mitglieder der Numb Protein-Familie in Vertebraten haben vielfältige Funktionen während der frühen Embryogenese, einschließend einer essentiellen Rolle in der Entwicklung des Nervensystems. Numb Proteine interagieren als Gerüst-Proteine mit vielen Interaktionspartnern und können demnach mehrere Funktionen haben, wie zum Beispiel die Inhibition des Notch Signalweges. Die exakte Funktion während der Entwicklung in Vertebraten ist jedoch unklar. Im Gegensatz zu Numb wird NumbL ist ausschließlich im entstehenden Nervensystem von Xenopus exprimiert und wird durch die proneuralen Faktoren der Neurogenin Familie induziert und durch Notch inhibiert. Während die Überexpression von NumbL zu einer leichten Zunahme postmitotischer Neuronen führt, inhibiert ein Knockdown von NumbL alle molekularen Marker stromabwärts von Neurogenin und führt zu einer Zunahme von Vorläufer-Markern. Weiter werden in dieser Arbeit Beweise für die Interaktion von NumbL mit dem endocytotischen AP-2 Komplex erbracht und das diese Interaktion essentiell für die Funktion von NumbL während der primären Neurogenese ist. Interessanterweise scheint die Inhibition der Neurogenese bei einem Knockdown von NumbL nicht auf einer Deregulierung des Notch Signalweges zu beruhen.

La métamorphose des amphibiens est le processus rapide et irréversible par lequel un têtard aquatique se transforme en une grenouille respirant à la surface. Cette transition écologique, réminiscente de la période périnatale chez les mammifères, s'accompagne de changements spectaculaires (régime alimentaire, organes locomoteurs, système respiratoire...). Ces modifications morphologiques et physiologiques nécessitent la réponse concertée à un signal hormonal, les hormones thyroïdiennes (HT), de différents tissus vers des destin parfois opposés : apoptose (dans la queue), prolifération (dans les pattes), et remodelage (dans les intestins et le système nerveux central). Toutefois, la synchronisation de la réponse des différents tissus fait appel à d'autres signaux hormonaux, et notamment les glucocorticoïdes (GC). Ces derniers sont également les médiateurs principaux de la réponse au stress. Les processus endocriniens de la métamorphose et la réponse au stress sont fortement couplés. Les GC peuvent ainsi jouer le rôle d'interface permettant l'intégration de signaux environnementaux au niveau de réseaux de régulation. Dans le cadre de mon doctorat, j'ai analysé les transcriptomes des bourgeons de membres postérieurs et de l'épiderme caudal de têtards de Xenopus tropicalis traités ponctuellement avec des HT et / ou des GC. La comparaison de ces deux tissus a permis de caractériser la diversité des profils d'expression des gènes cibles des HT et des GC.Il en ressort plusieurs résultats majeurs. Tout d'abord, la diversité des profils d'interaction entre ces deux voies est limitée, et la majorité des types de profils sont communs aux deux tissus. Indépendamment du tissu, certains profils sont caractéristiques de fonctions biologiques spécifiques comme le remodelage de la matrice extracellulaire et le système immunitaire. Les gènes impliqués dans ces fonctions communes aux deux tissus sont cependant différents. Enfin, plusieurs facteurs impliqués dans la méthylation de l'ADN sont régulés par les deux hormones. / Amphibian metamorphosis is the rapid and irreversible process during which an aquatic tadpole transforms into an air breathing adult frog. This ecological transition, reminiscent of the mammalian perinatal period, comes with spectacular changes (diet, locmotor organs, respiratory system...). These morphological and physiological modifications necessitate the properly timed response to a single hormonal signal, the thyroid hormones (TH), in various tissues to lead them to sometimes opposite fates : apoptosis (in the tail), cell prolifération and differenciation (in the limbs) and remodeling (in the intestine and the central nervous system).However, TH do not act alone. In particular, glucocorticoids (GC) play important roles during this process. They also are the main mediator of the stress response. Endocrine processes of the metamorphosis and the stress response are deeply intertwined. GC can thus act as an interface to integrate environmental inputs into regulatory networks.During my doctorate, I analyzed the possible transcriptional crosstalks between TH and GC in two larval tissues : the tailfin (TF) and the hindlimb buds (HLB). Comparing these two tissues allowed me to caracterize the diversity of TH and GC target gene expression profiles. This resulted in several major results. First, the diversity of the profiles of crosstalk between these two pathways is limited, and the majority of the types of profiles is common to both tissues. Next, independently ofthe tissues, some profiles are caracteristic of spécific biological functions such as extracellular matrix remodeling and the immune system. Yet, the genes involved in these shared functions are different between the TF and the HLB. Finally, several factors involved in DNA methylation are subject to a crosstalk between the two hormones.

Os ciclos claro-escuro (CE) são considerados importantes pistas para o ajuste de relógios biológicos. Alças de retroalimentação positiva e negativa de transcrição e tradução de genes de relógio são a base molecular subjacente tanto a relógios centrais como periféricos. A opsina não visual, melanopsina (Opn4), expressa na retina de mamíferos, é considerada o fotopigmento circadiano pois é responsável pelo ajuste do relógio biológico endógeno. Este fotopigmento também está presente nos melanóforos de Xenopus laevis, onde ele foi descrito pela primeira vez, mas seu papel nestas células ainda não está completamente esclarecido. Espécies de vertebrados não mamíferos expressam duas ou mais melanopsinas e, no caso de X. laevis, há dois genes, Opn4m and Opn4x. Melanóforos de X. laevis respondem à luz com dispersão dos grânulos de melanina, a resposta máxima sendo atingida no comprimento de onda correspondente àquele de excitação máxima da melanopsina. Entre vários hormônios, endotelinas também dispersam os melanossomos em melanóforos de Xenopus através de via similar àquela evocada pela luz. Tendo esses fatos em mente, decidimos investigar se a luz e a endotelina modulam a expressão de genes de relógio em melanóforos de Xenopus, usando PCR quantitativo para avaliar os níveis relativos de RNAm de Per1, Per2, Clock e Bmal1. Ciclos CE promoveram alterações temporais na expressão de Per1, Per2 e Bmal1. Pulsos de 10 min de luz azul aumentaram a expressão de Per1 e Per2, diminuíram a expressão de Opn4x, mas não tiveram efeito sobre Opn4m. Ainda mais, diferentes localizações foram mostradas para cada melanopsina: imunorreatividade para OPN4x foi vista principalmente na membrana celular, enquanto OPN4m foi imuno-localizada no núcleo. Estes resultados em conjunto apontam para funções diferenciais das duas melanopsinas neste modelo. A translocação de grânulos de melanina foi maior quando um pulso de luz azul foi aplicado na presença de endotelina ET-3. E os níveis de RNAm de Clock exibiram variação temporal em melanóforos submetidos a CE após tratamento com ET-3 10-9M, enquanto a expressão de Per1 não foi afetada pelo tratamento hormonal. Em adição, ensaios farmacológicos indicaram que as respostas de Per1 e Per2 à luz azul são evocadas através da ativação da via de fosfoinositídeos, com crosstalks com GMPc/proteina quinase G (PKG) para ativar os genes de relógio. Estes dados sugerem a participação de melanopsina na foto-ativação de genes de relógio, e apontam para uma participação menor de endotelina como sincronizador desta linhagem celular. Nossos resultados constituem uma importante contribuição ao campo emergente dos relógios periféricos os quais, em espécies de não mamíferos têm sido mais extensivamente estudados em Drosophila melanogaster e Danio rerio. Dentro deste contexto, nós mostramos que os melanóforos de Xenopus laevis representam um modelo ideal para a compreensão da modulação de ritmos circadianos por luz e hormônios / Light-dark cycles (LD) are considered important cues to entrain biological clocks. Positive and negative feedback loops of clock gene transcription and translation are the molecular basis underlying the mechanism of both central and peripheral clocks. The non-visual opsin, melanopsin (Opn4), expressed in the mammalian retina, is considered a circadian photopigment because it is responsible of entraining the endogenous biological clock. This photopigment is also present in the melanophores of Xenopus laevis, where it was first described, but its role in these cells is not fully understood. Non-mammalian vertebrate species express two or more melanopsins, and in X. laevis there are two melanopsin genes, Opn4m and Opn4x. X. laevis melanophores respond to light with melanin granule dispersion, the maximal response being achieved at the wavelength of melanopsin maximal excitation. Among various hormones, endothelins also disperse melanosomes in Xenopus melanophores through a similar pathway as light does. Therefore, we decided to investigate whether light and endothelin modulate clock gene expression in Xenopus melanophores, using quantitative PCR to evaluate the relative mRNA levels of Per1, Per2, Clock and Bmal1. LD cycles elicited temporal changes in the expression of Per1, Per2 and Bmal1. A 10 min pulse of blue light increased the expression of Per1 and Per2, decreased Opn4x expression, but had no effect on Opn4m. In addition, a different localization was shown for each melanopsin: immunoreactivity for OPN4x was mainly seen in the cell membrane, whereas OPN4m was immunolocalized in the nucleus. These results taken together point to a differential role for each melanopsin in this model. Melanosome translocation was greater when a blue light pulse was applied in the presence of endothelin ET-3. And mRNA levels of Clock exhibited temporal variation in melanophores under LD cycles after 10-9 M ET-3 treatment, whereas Per1 expression was not affected by the hormone treatment. In addition, pharmacological assays indicated that Per1 and Per2 responses to blue light are evoked through the activation of the phosphoinositide pathway, which crosstalks with cGMP/protein kinase G (PKG) to activate the clock genes. These data suggest the participation of melanopsin in the photo-activation of clock genes and point to a minor role of endothelin as synchronizer for this cell line. Our results add an important contribution to the emerging field of peripheral clocks, which in non-mammalian species have been mostly studied in Drosophila melanogaster and Danio rerio. Within this context, we show that Xenopus laevis melanophores represent an ideal model to understanding circadian rhythms modulation by light and hormone

The amphibian decline phenomenon now involves in excess of a third of the roughly 6000 species of amphibians on the planet. The problems that drive the declines are diverse with no end in sight. The Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP) aims to stem amphibian decline through four recommended actions by researchers and conservation biologists: (1) Expand scientific understanding of amphibian declines and extinctions; (2) continue to document amphibian diversity and ecology and how they are changing; (3) develop and implement long-term conservation programs; (4) prepare emergency response actions for eminent crises. This Dissertation focused on two of those recommendations: expanding scientific understanding of amphibian declines and extinctions and continuing to document amphibian diversity and ecology and how they are changing. The first chapter is a review of the amphibian decline phenomenon. The second, third, and fourth chapters focus on expanding scientific understanding of amphibian diversity and ecology with the description of a formerly unknown species (chapter 2), and ecological papers on two poorly known species (chapters 3 and 4). Chapter five focuses on the first ACAP recommendation in improving scientific understanding of the causes behind amphibian decline. The chapter is an experimental examination of two related species and their developmental reactions to common heavy metal contaminants. The goal of this Dissertation is to contribute toward the general amphibian knowledge base relative to the recommendations of ACAP.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.