The Jurassic Quiet Zone (JQZ) is a region of low amplitude, difficult-to-correlate magnetic anomalies located over Jurassic oceanic crust. We collected 1200 km of new deep-tow magnetic anomaly profiles over the Pacific JQZ that complement 2 deep-tow profiles reported in Sager et al. (1998). Our primary goals were to extend the correlation of deep-tow magnetic anomalies farther back in time, to evaluate the correlatability and repeatability of anomalies, and to refine the Jurassic geomagnetic polarity reversal time scale (GPTS). Correlations of anomalies were excellent over M34 and over supposedly older seafloor to the south of ODP Site 801. In contrast, the correlation in the region between M34 and Site 801 was difficult. Using anomaly correlation models, we made magnetic polarity block models to establish a revised Jurassic GPTS extending until 169.4 Ma. Age calibration was accomplished with radiometric dates from two ODP holes. Systematic changes in anomaly amplitudes occur along the survey lines with the amplitudes decreasing backward in time and then increasing again in the oldest part of survey area. The zone of the most difficult to correlate anomalies corresponds to a period of ~4 m.y. that appears to have an abrupt end. This low amplitude zone suggests unusual magnetic behavior during the Jurassic. It has been said that many of the larger anomalies are likely caused by changes in polarity, whereas smaller anomalies may be intensity fluctuations. Although it is impossible to identify which anomalies are caused by reversals and which are not, magnetization structures observed in ODP Hole 801C suggest that many of the smallest anomalies, particularly around Hole 801C indicate polarity reversals. We concluded that (1) the new data demonstrates repeatability and correlatability of the JQZ magnetic anomalies implying that they are seafloor spreading lineations and (2) good correlations made new GPTS models extending back to 169.4 Ma; and (3) the origin of the JQZ may be a combination of rapid polarity reversals in the Jurassic low magnetic dipole field and closely spaced, tilted magnetization structure in the oceanic crust.

Many studies on neurogenesis in adult dentate gyrus (DG) have been performed on rodents and other mammalian species, but only a few on adult human DG.  This study is focusing on neurogenesis in adult human DG. To characterize the birth of cells in DG, the expression of the cell proliferation marker Ki67 was examined using immunohistochemistry. Ki67-positive labelling was indeed observed in the granular cell layer and the molecular layer of dentate gyrus and in the hilus of hippocampus, as well as in the subgranular zone (SGZ). The Ki67 positive nuclei could be divided into three groups, based on their morphology and position, suggesting that one of the groups represents neuronal precursors. Fewer Ki67 positive cells were seen in aged subjects and in subjects with an alcohol abuse. When comparing the Ki67 positive cells and the amount of blood vessels as determined by anti factor VIII, no systematic pattern could be discerned. To identify possible stem/progenitor cells in DG a co-labelling with nestin and glial fibrillary acid protein was carried out. Co-labelling was found in the SGZ, but most of the filaments were positive for just one of the two antibodies. Antibodies to detect immature/mature neurons were also used to investigate adult human neurogenesis in DG. The immature marker βIII-tubulin showed a weak expression. The other two immature markers (PSA-NCAM and DCX) used did not work, probably since they were not cross-reacting against human tissue. In summary, this study shows that new cells are continuously formed in the adult human hippocampus, but at a slower pace compared to the rat, and that some of these new cells may represent neuronal precursors.

Bakgrund: Kaliningrad är den mest västliga ryska regionen som ligger mellan två EU-länder. I takt med den höjda levnadsstandarden och på grund av det gynnsamma geografiska läget ökar svenska företagens intresse för regionen. För att öppna upp regionens ekonomi för direkta investeringar från utlandet introducerades Special Economic Zone. Syftet med SEZ-Kaliningrad var att kompensera regionen för det isolerade läget genom tull- och skattelättnader för varor som tillverkas där. SEZ-insatsen i Kaliningrad har attraherat en del direkta investeringar, men resultaten har hittils inte varit speciellt imponerande. Syfte: Syftet med denna uppsats är att genomföra en studie av de skandinaviska företagens erfarenheter av SEZ-Kaliningrad. I samband med detta vill författaren även undersöka hur representanter från de lokala myndigheterna, som arbetar med SEZ-frågor, upplever SEZ. Teori: Inom uppsatsens teoretiska ramverk diskuteras de viktiga anledningarna för företagens investeringsbeslut och samband mellan statlig politik, marknadens ofullständighet och direkta investeringar i utlandet. Vidare diskuteras begreppen enklav och Special Economic Zone. Avslutningsvis framställs några kriterier för en framgångsrik Special Economic Zone. Metod: Uppsatsens undersökning genomfördes med hjälp av den kvantitativa metoden. Svaren på enkät från sex skandinaviska bolag, som är etablerade i Kaliningrad och använder sig av SEZ-villkor, analyserades. Även två representanter från lokala myndigheter, som jobbar med SEZ-frågor, deltog i undersökningen. Resultaten av undersökningen presenterades i löpande text och illustrerades med diagram. Analys: Resultatet av den genomförda undersökningen visar att det finns skillnader mellan de lokala myndigheternas uppfattning om hur effektivt Special Economic Zone i Kaliningrad är och de skandinaviska företagens erfarenhet av den. För att öka SEZ-åtgärdernas effektivitet krävs det större intresset från de lokala myndigheternas sida i investerarnas problem. Det krävs även djupare förståelse och högre grad av samarbete mellan parterna för att förbättra den befintliga situationen. Nyckelord: Direkta investeringar i utlandet, Special Economic Zone, Kaliningrad / Background: Kaliningrad is the western Russian city situated between two EU countries. Due to the higher living standard and the favourable geographical position the interest from the Swedish companies in the region is growing. In order to open the region’s economy to direct investments, the Special Economic Zone was introduced in the region. The purpose with the SEZ-Kaliningrad was to compensate the region for its isolation with customs and tax reductions on goods manufactured there. The SEZ in Kaliningrad has drawn a number of direct investments, but the results have not been very impressive so far. Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is to study the Scandinavian companies’ experience of the SEZ-Kaliningrad. In connection with this the author also wants to study how the representatives from the local authorities, who work with the SEZ matters, experience the SEZ. Theory: Within the thesis’ theoretical framework I discuss the important grounds for the companies’ investment decisions and the relation between state policy, the market’s deficiency and the direct investments abroad. Furthermore, enclave and Special Economic Zone concepts are discussed. In conclusion, a number of criteria for a successful Special Economic Zone are presented. Method: The survey is carried out with the help of the quantitative methodology. The answers from six Scandinavian companies, which are established in Kaliningrad and implement SEZ conditions, were analyzed. Besides that, two representatives from the local authorities, who work with the SEZ matters, took part in the survey. The results of the survey were presented in the text and illustrated with diagrams. Analysis: The results from the survey show that there are differences between the local authorities’ understanding of the efficiency of the Special Economic Zone in Kaliningrad and the Scandinavian companies’ experience of it. To make the SEZ measures more effective a greater interest is needed from the local authorities in the investment companies’ problems. There is even a need of a better understanding and a higher level of cooperation between the parties to improve the present situation. Keywords: Foreign Direct Investments, Special Economic Zone, Kaliningrad.

The exchange rate target zone has been paid much attention in the early 1990 initially by Krugman (1991).It expressed when exchange rate surpasses the band of exchange rate that implicitly or explicitly determined by the central bank, the central Bank will intervene the foreign exchange by buying or selling foreign exchange to ensure the exchange rate staying inside the band, otherwise, the exchange rate will be allowed to fluctuate inside the band freely.According to Krugman (1991), when economic system faces random disturbances, the exchange rate target zone regime is helpful to narrow down the exchange rate volatility contrast to that in the floating exchange rate regime. That is, the exchange rate target zone has more essential stability,which is called ``honeymoon effect". In recent decade, Krugman's exchange rate target zone model has been tested empirically.In this thesis, the smooth transition autoregression with target zone (STARTZ) proposed originally by Lundbergh and Ter"{a}svirta (2006) and logistic smooth transition regression with two thresholds (LSTR2) are used to make comparisons for in-sample fitness and out-of-sample forcastability.Furthermore, we also test two important assumptions of the exchange rate target zone model: the credibility assumption and marginal interventions. The data are constructed with 755 daily spot exchange rates, denominated in Eurpean Currency Unit (ECU), from January 14, 1987 to December 29, 1989, in German, France, and Italy.We split the sample into in-sample (570 observations), and out-of-sample (185 observations), and make use of STARTZ-GARCH and LSTR2-STGARCH to fit the in-sample regimes, and apply Rapach and Wohard (2006)'s Bootstapping to generate the out-of-sample forecasts. Finally,we make use of Diebold and Mariano (1995)'s predictive accuracy tests to compare the out-of-sample forecastability between STARTZ and LSTR2 models.According to the empirical results, we can find that LSTR2 model has not bad performance in fitting the in-sample and forecasting the out-of-sample data compared to STARTZ model.

The focus of this project is highway construction zones and the impact of lane closures on traffic. By measuring throughput (the number of vehicles that can flow through a work zone in a given amount of time), analysis was performed to determine the factors that affect this value. Successful data collection uncovered a paradox. Often work zones would see no queuing, indicating the lane could have been closed for longer hours. Alternatively sites with forced flow allowed fewer vehicles through the site than expected, indicating that the design value is too high, requiring shorter lane closure hours. A generic model for throughput was developed as well as a better functioning highway specific model. In addition to these models, this project developed a spreadsheet-based form of analysis named SZUDA (Simplified work Zone User Delay Analysis) that determines queue length and approximate costs associated with road user delay.

Dynamic exchange of water across the stream-riparian zone interface is important in increasing stream water transit time through basins and enhancing redox-sensitive biogeochemical reactions that influence downstream water quality and ecosystem health. Such exchange may be enhanced by beaver dams, which are common throughout low order streams in North America, Europe, and Argentina. Lateral exchanges of water and nitrogen (N) were observed along a beaver dammed, third-order stream draining a 1.3 km2 Canadian Rocky Mountain valley bottom capped in peat. Measurements of hydraulic heads and chloride concentrations from a network of 80 water table wells were used to identify areas of stream water and groundwater mixing in the riparian area, and their spatiotemporal dynamics in summer 2008. Beaver were found to be the greatest factor affecting lateral movement of channel water into the riparian area. Channel water flowed laterally into the riparian area upstream of the dams and back to the channel downstream of the dams. The hyporheic zone expanded by ¡Ü1.5 m in the un-dammed reaches, but upwards of 7.5 m or more when dams were present. High contributions of stream water were found far out in the riparian area where dams were not immediately present within the stream reach, suggesting that upstream dams directed stream water into the riparian area where it travelled down valley before returning to the stream. This suggests that multiple dams create hyporheic flow paths at multiple scales. Potential mass flux calculations show the riparian area immediately downstream of the beaver dam was a source of N and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) to the stream, and a sink along the rest of the reach. Cold spots of N and DOC availability were also found along the beaver-driven flow paths in the riparian area adjacent to the dam. This pattern likely developed due to flushing of nutrients along the beaver driven hyporheic flow vectors. This work enhances our understanding of stream-aquifer exchange and N dynamics in riparian areas, and the effects of beaver on these processes.

The focus of this project is highway construction zones and the impact of lane closures on traffic. By measuring throughput (the number of vehicles that can flow through a work zone in a given amount of time), analysis was performed to determine the factors that affect this value. Successful data collection uncovered a paradox. Often work zones would see no queuing, indicating the lane could have been closed for longer hours. Alternatively sites with forced flow allowed fewer vehicles through the site than expected, indicating that the design value is too high, requiring shorter lane closure hours. A generic model for throughput was developed as well as a better functioning highway specific model. In addition to these models, this project developed a spreadsheet-based form of analysis named SZUDA (Simplified work Zone User Delay Analysis) that determines queue length and approximate costs associated with road user delay.

The increasing use of ethanol as a gasoline additive has raised concerns over the potential impacts ethanol might have on groundwater contamination. In North America, 10% ethanol is commonly being added to gasoline (termed E10). Ethanol is usually denaturated with gasoline compounds before being transported; consequently E95 (95% ethanol) mixtures are also common. Therefore, spills with compositions ranging from E10 to E95 can be anticipated. The compounds of main concern associated with gasoline spills are benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX), trimethylbenzenes (TMBs) and naphthalene, due to their higher mobility and potential risks to human health. Ethanol is thought to increase mobility of the NAPL, create higher hydrocarbon concentrations in groundwater due to cosolvency, and decrease the rate of gasoline hydrocarbon biodegradation, with consequent increase in the length of the dissolved plumes. The objective of this research was to improve the knowledge about ethanol fate in the subsurface and the impacts it might have on the fate of gasoline compounds. To investigate that, laboratory experiments and controlled field tests supported by numerical modeling were conducted. To evaluate the impact of ethanol on dissolved hydrocarbon plumes, data from a controlled field test were evaluated using a numerical model. The mass discharge of BTEX, TMB and naphthalene from three sources (E0, E10 and E95) emplaced below the water table was compared to simulation results obtained in the numerical model BIONAPL/3D. It was shown that if ethanol fuel mixtures get below the water table, ethanol is dissolved and travels downgradient fast, in a short slug. Mass discharge from the E0 and E10 sources had similar hydrocarbon decay rates, indicating that ethanol from E10 had no impact on hydrocarbon degradation. In contrast, the estimated hydrocarbon decay rates were significantly lower when the source was E95. The aquifer did not have enough oxygen to support the mass loss observed assuming complete mineralization. Assuming a heterogeneous distribution of hydraulic conductivity did little to overcome this discrepancy. A better match between the numerical model and the field data was obtained assuming partial degradation of hydrocarbons to intermediate compounds, with consequent less demand for oxygen. Besides depending on the concentration of ethanol in the groundwater, the impact of ethanol on hydrocarbon degradation appears to be highly dependent on the aquifer conditions, such as availability of electron acceptors and adaptation of the microbial community. Another concern related to ethanol biodegradation is formation of explosive levels of methane. In this study, methane δ13C from toluene and ethanol as substrates was evaluated in microcosm tests. It was shown that methane is enriched in δ13C when ethanol is the substrate. Ethanol derived methane δ13C is in the range of -20‰ to 30‰, while methane from gasoline is around -55‰. The different ranges of δ13C allow it to be used as a tool to identify methane’s origin. This tool was applied to seven ethanol-gasoline contaminated sites. Methane origin could be clearly distinguished in five of the seven sites, while in the other two sites methane appears to have been produced from both ethanol and gasoline. Both ethanol and gasoline were identified as the source of methane in hazardous concentrations. The behaviour of ethanol fuels in the unsaturated zone was evaluated in 2-dimensional (2-D) lab tests and in a controlled field test. In the 2-D lab tests, dyed gasoline and ethanol were injected in the unsaturated zone simulated in a transparent plexiglass box packed with glass beads. Tests were performed under both static conditions and with horizontal groundwater flow. It was confirmed that some ethanol can be retained in the unsaturated zone pore water. However, most of the ethanol went through the unsaturated zone and reached the pre-existing gasoline pool. Ethanol displaced the NAPL to deeper positions, and it was shown that for large ethanol releases much of the gasoline can be displaced to below the water table. The ethanol that reaches the capillary fringe was shown to travel downgradient rapidly at the top of the capillary fringe, while ethanol was also retained in the unsaturated zone. The behaviour of ethanol fuel spills was further evaluated in a controlled field test. 200L of E10 containing around 5% MTBE was released into the unsaturated zone. Groundwater concentrations of ethanol, MTBE, BTEX, TMB and naphthalene above and below the water table were monitored downgradient of the source in multilevel wells. Lab tests were performed to evaluate the applicability of these samplers for volatile organic compounds. It was shown that volatilization losses might be significant when bubbles formation in the sampling line could not be avoided. A method for losses estimation and correction of the concentrations was developed. Concentrations in the source zone were measured in soil samples. Despite the thin (35 cm) unsaturated zone at the site, most of the ethanol was retained in the unsaturated zone pore water, above the capillary fringe. Being in zones of low effective hydraulic conductivity, ethanol was not transported downgradient, and remained in the unsaturated zone for more than 100 days. Ethanol mass discharge was much lower than would be anticipated based solely on the ethanol fraction in the gasoline and on its solubility. Oscillations in the water table, particularly when a shallow position was maintained for prolonged periods, flushed some ethanol to zones with high water saturation, where horizontal transport occurred. The ethanol that reaches the saturated zone appears in the downgradient wells as a slug, with relatively low concentrations. No effect of ethanol on gasoline hydrocarbons was observed, a consequence of most of the ethanol being retained in the unsaturated zone. In summary, spills of ethanol fuels might have two different outcomes, depending on whether most of the ethanol is retained in the unsaturated zone or if most reaches the capillary fringe and the saturated zone. The relation between the ethanol volume spilled and the retention capacity of the unsaturated zone will control the spill behaviour. The volume of ethanol that can be retained in the unsaturated zone is a function of the volume of water that is contacted by the infiltrating NAPL. Therefore, the type of soil, heterogeneities, depth to the water table and area of the spill will be determinant factors. If a relatively large volume of ethanol reaches the capillary fringe, ethanol will travel rapidly in the groundwater possibly in high concentrations, potentially enhancing dissolved hydrocarbon plumes. However, when most of the ethanol is retained in the unsaturated zone, it will likely be detected downgradient only in low concentration, and in pulses spread in time. In this scenario, impact on hydrocarbon plumes will be minor.

Title: Mountain birds – a comparative study from valley to mountaintop in a northern and southern Swedish fjeld   Author: Kristian Zackrisson   Abstract Main aim in this study was to increase the knowledge about birds in the Swedish mountain area. Three questions were asked: 1) Which bird species can be found during the breeding season along a low mountain slope from a forested valley to a mountaintop with bare mountain environment? 2) Do the number of species and individuals differ in different elevation zones? 3) Is the composition of bird species along a low mountain slope the same in the Kebnekaise mountains inLaplandand the Grövelsjön mountains in Dalarna? Bird census in two study sites located in the Kebnekaise mountains and the Grövelsjön mountains and subsequent analysis of the results from the bird census was the main parts in this study. Totally 20 bird species were found along a low mountain slope in the Kebnekaise mountains. In a lower elevation zone below the forest boundary there was 16 bird species and 509 individuals observed. 6 bird species and 65 individuals were registered in an upper elevation zone above the forest boundary. The lower elevation zone indicated a higher biodiversity for birds compared to the upper elevation zone. Bird species composition varied between the two study sites. Five species that had been observed in the Kebnekaise mountains where not found in the Grövelsjön mountains which instead had six species that were not found in the Kebnekaise mountains. Compared to other studies the 20 observed bird species are some of several species in the specific area. The higher biodiversity in the lower elevation zone can be related to declining temperature by elevation gradients. Previous bird censuses indicate that the bird species observed in the Kebnekaise mountains also can be found in the Grövelsjön mountains.

The increasing use of ethanol as a gasoline additive has raised concerns over the potential impacts ethanol might have on groundwater contamination. In North America, 10% ethanol is commonly being added to gasoline (termed E10). Ethanol is usually denaturated with gasoline compounds before being transported; consequently E95 (95% ethanol) mixtures are also common. Therefore, spills with compositions ranging from E10 to E95 can be anticipated. The compounds of main concern associated with gasoline spills are benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX), trimethylbenzenes (TMBs) and naphthalene, due to their higher mobility and potential risks to human health. Ethanol is thought to increase mobility of the NAPL, create higher hydrocarbon concentrations in groundwater due to cosolvency, and decrease the rate of gasoline hydrocarbon biodegradation, with consequent increase in the length of the dissolved plumes. The objective of this research was to improve the knowledge about ethanol fate in the subsurface and the impacts it might have on the fate of gasoline compounds. To investigate that, laboratory experiments and controlled field tests supported by numerical modeling were conducted. To evaluate the impact of ethanol on dissolved hydrocarbon plumes, data from a controlled field test were evaluated using a numerical model. The mass discharge of BTEX, TMB and naphthalene from three sources (E0, E10 and E95) emplaced below the water table was compared to simulation results obtained in the numerical model BIONAPL/3D. It was shown that if ethanol fuel mixtures get below the water table, ethanol is dissolved and travels downgradient fast, in a short slug. Mass discharge from the E0 and E10 sources had similar hydrocarbon decay rates, indicating that ethanol from E10 had no impact on hydrocarbon degradation. In contrast, the estimated hydrocarbon decay rates were significantly lower when the source was E95. The aquifer did not have enough oxygen to support the mass loss observed assuming complete mineralization. Assuming a heterogeneous distribution of hydraulic conductivity did little to overcome this discrepancy. A better match between the numerical model and the field data was obtained assuming partial degradation of hydrocarbons to intermediate compounds, with consequent less demand for oxygen. Besides depending on the concentration of ethanol in the groundwater, the impact of ethanol on hydrocarbon degradation appears to be highly dependent on the aquifer conditions, such as availability of electron acceptors and adaptation of the microbial community. Another concern related to ethanol biodegradation is formation of explosive levels of methane. In this study, methane δ13C from toluene and ethanol as substrates was evaluated in microcosm tests. It was shown that methane is enriched in δ13C when ethanol is the substrate. Ethanol derived methane δ13C is in the range of -20‰ to 30‰, while methane from gasoline is around -55‰. The different ranges of δ13C allow it to be used as a tool to identify methane’s origin. This tool was applied to seven ethanol-gasoline contaminated sites. Methane origin could be clearly distinguished in five of the seven sites, while in the other two sites methane appears to have been produced from both ethanol and gasoline. Both ethanol and gasoline were identified as the source of methane in hazardous concentrations. The behaviour of ethanol fuels in the unsaturated zone was evaluated in 2-dimensional (2-D) lab tests and in a controlled field test. In the 2-D lab tests, dyed gasoline and ethanol were injected in the unsaturated zone simulated in a transparent plexiglass box packed with glass beads. Tests were performed under both static conditions and with horizontal groundwater flow. It was confirmed that some ethanol can be retained in the unsaturated zone pore water. However, most of the ethanol went through the unsaturated zone and reached the pre-existing gasoline pool. Ethanol displaced the NAPL to deeper positions, and it was shown that for large ethanol releases much of the gasoline can be displaced to below the water table. The ethanol that reaches the capillary fringe was shown to travel downgradient rapidly at the top of the capillary fringe, while ethanol was also retained in the unsaturated zone. The behaviour of ethanol fuel spills was further evaluated in a controlled field test. 200L of E10 containing around 5% MTBE was released into the unsaturated zone. Groundwater concentrations of ethanol, MTBE, BTEX, TMB and naphthalene above and below the water table were monitored downgradient of the source in multilevel wells. Lab tests were performed to evaluate the applicability of these samplers for volatile organic compounds. It was shown that volatilization losses might be significant when bubbles formation in the sampling line could not be avoided. A method for losses estimation and correction of the concentrations was developed. Concentrations in the source zone were measured in soil samples. Despite the thin (35 cm) unsaturated zone at the site, most of the ethanol was retained in the unsaturated zone pore water, above the capillary fringe. Being in zones of low effective hydraulic conductivity, ethanol was not transported downgradient, and remained in the unsaturated zone for more than 100 days. Ethanol mass discharge was much lower than would be anticipated based solely on the ethanol fraction in the gasoline and on its solubility. Oscillations in the water table, particularly when a shallow position was maintained for prolonged periods, flushed some ethanol to zones with high water saturation, where horizontal transport occurred. The ethanol that reaches the saturated zone appears in the downgradient wells as a slug, with relatively low concentrations. No effect of ethanol on gasoline hydrocarbons was observed, a consequence of most of the ethanol being retained in the unsaturated zone. In summary, spills of ethanol fuels might have two different outcomes, depending on whether most of the ethanol is retained in the unsaturated zone or if most reaches the capillary fringe and the saturated zone. The relation between the ethanol volume spilled and the retention capacity of the unsaturated zone will control the spill behaviour. The volume of ethanol that can be retained in the unsaturated zone is a function of the volume of water that is contacted by the infiltrating NAPL. Therefore, the type of soil, heterogeneities, depth to the water table and area of the spill will be determinant factors. If a relatively large volume of ethanol reaches the capillary fringe, ethanol will travel rapidly in the groundwater possibly in high concentrations, potentially enhancing dissolved hydrocarbon plumes. However, when most of the ethanol is retained in the unsaturated zone, it will likely be detected downgradient only in low concentration, and in pulses spread in time. In this scenario, impact on hydrocarbon plumes will be minor.